1Stellar Evolution:The Deaths of StarsChapter Twenty-TwoGuiding Questions1. What kinds of nuclear reactions occur within a star like the Sun as it ages?2. Where did the carbon atoms in our bodies come from?3. What is a planetary nebula, and what does it have to do with planets?4. What is a white dwarf star?5. Why do high-mass stars go through more evolutionary stages than low-mass stars?6. What happens within a high-mass star to turn it into a supernova?7. Why was SN 1987A an unusual supernova?8. What was learned by detecting neutrinos from SN 1987A?9. How do white dwarf stars give rise to certain types of supernovae?10.What vestiges are left after a supernova explosion?Pathways of Stellar Evolution2Low-mass stars go through two distinctred-giant stages • A low-mass star becomes– a red giant when shell hydrogen fusion begins– a horizontal-branch star when core helium fusion begins– an asymptotic giant branch (AGB) star when the helium in the core is exhausted and shell helium fusion begins3Dredge-ups bring the products of nuclear fusionto a giant star’s surface• As a low-mass star ages, convection occurs over a larger portion of its volume• This takes heavy elements formed in the star’s interior and distributes them throughout the star4Low-mass stars die by gently ejecting their outerlayers, creating planetary nebulae• Helium shell flashes in an old, low-mass star produce thermal pulses during which more than half the star’s mass may be ejected into space• This exposes the hot carbon-oxygen core of the star• Ultraviolet radiation from the exposed core ionizes and excites the ejected gases, producing a planetary nebula56The burned-out core of a low-mass star coolsand contracts until it becomes a white dwarf• No further nuclear reactions take place within the exposed core• Instead, it becomes a degenerate, dense sphere about the size of the Earth and is called a white dwarf• It glows from thermal radiation; as the sphere cools, it becomes dimmer7High-mass stars create heavy elements in their cores• Unlike a low-mass star, a high mass star undergoes an extended sequence of thermonuclear reactions in its core and shells• These include carbon fusion, neon fusion, oxygen fusion, and silicon fusion8• In the last stages of its life, a high-mass star has an iron-rich core surrounded by concentric shells hosting the various thermonuclear reactions• The sequence of thermonuclear reactions stops here, because the formation of elements heavier than iron requires an input ofenergy rather than causing energy to be releasedHigh-mass stars violently blow apart in supernovaexplosions• A high-mass star dies in a violent cataclysm in which its core collapses and most of its matter is ejected into space at high speeds• The luminosity of the star increases suddenly by a factor of around 108during this explosion, producing a supernova• The matter ejected from the supernova, moving at supersonic speeds through interstellar gases and dust, glows as a nebula called a supernova remnant9In 1987 a nearby supernova gave us a close-up look at the death of a massive star10Neutrinos emanate from supernovae like SN 1987A More than 99% of the energy from such a supernova is emitted in the form of neutrinos from the collapsing coreWhite dwarfs in close binary systems can alsobecome supernovae• An accreting white dwarf in a close binary system can also become a supernova when carbon fusion ignites explosively throughout such a degenerate star11Type Ia supernovae are those produced by accreting white dwarfs in close binariesType Ib and Type Ic supernovae occur when the star has lost a substantial part of its outer layers before exploding12Type II supernovae are created by the deaths of massive starsMost supernovae occurring in our Galaxy are hidden from our view by interstellar dust and gases but a supernova remnant can be detected at many wavelengths for centuries after the explosion13Key Words• asymptotic giant branch• asymptotic giant branch star(AGB star)• carbon fusion• carbon star• Cerenkov radiation• Chandrasekhar limit• core helium fusion• dredge-up• helium shell flash• horizontal branch• mass-radius relation• neon fusion• neutron capture• nuclear density• oxygen fusion• photodisintegration• planetary nebula• progenitor star• red-giant branch• shell helium fusion• silicon fusion• supergiant• supernova (plural supernovae)• supernova remnant• thermal pulse• Type I supernova• Type Ia supernova• Type Ib supernova• Type Ic supernova• Type II supernova• white