The Nature of Light Chapter Five Determining the Speed of Light Galileo tried unsuccessfully to determine the speed of light using an assistant with a lantern on a distant hilltop Guiding Questions 1 How fast does light travel How can this speed be measured 2 Why do we think light is a wave What kind of wave is it 3 How is the light from an ordinary light bulb different from the light emitted by a neon sign 4 How can astronomers measure the temperatures of the Sun and stars 5 What is a photon How does an understanding of photons help explain why ultraviolet light causes sunburns 6 How can astronomers tell what distant celestial objects are made of 7 What are atoms made of 8 How does the structure of atoms explain what kind of light those atoms can emit or absorb 9 How can we tell if a star is approaching us or receding from us Light travels through empty space at a speed of 300 000 km s In 1676 Danish astronomer Olaus R mer discovered that the exact time of eclipses of Jupiter s moons depended on the distance of Jupiter to Earth This happens because it takes varying times for light to travel the varying distance between Earth and Jupiter Using d rt with a known distance and a measured time gave the speed rate of the light Light is electromagnetic radiation and is characterized by its wavelength In 1850 Fizeau and Foucalt also experimented with light by bouncing it off a rotating mirror and measuring time The light returned to its source at a slightly different position because the mirror has moved during the time light was traveling d rt again gave c 1 Wavelength and Frequency The Nature of Light In the 1860s the Scottish mathematician and physicist James Clerk Maxwell succeeded in describing all the basic properties of electricity and magnetism in four equations This mathematical achievement demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces are really two aspects of the same phenomenon which we now call electromagnetism Three Temperature Scales Because of its electric and magnetic properties light is also called electromagnetic radiation Visible light falls in the 400 to 700 nm range Stars galaxies and other objects emit light in all wavelengths An opaque object emits electromagnetic radiation according to its temperature A person in infrared color coded image red is hottest 2 Wien s law and the Stefan Boltzmann law are useful tools for analyzing glowing objects like stars A blackbody is a hypothetical object that is a perfect absorber of electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths Stars closely approximate the behavior of blackbodies as do other hot dense objects The intensities of radiation emitted at various wavelengths by a blackbody at a given temperature are shown by a blackbody curve Wien s Law Wien s law states that the dominant wavelength at which a blackbody emits electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the object Stefan Boltzmann Law The Stefan Boltzmann law states that a blackbody radiates electromagnetic waves with a total energy flux E directly proportional to the fourth power of the Kelvin temperature T of the object E T4 Light has properties of both waves and particles Newton thought light was in the form of little packets of energy called photons and subsequent experiments with blackbody radiation indicate it has particle like properties Young s Double Slit Experiment indicated light behaved as a wave Light has a dual personality it behaves as a stream of particle like photons but each photon has wavelike properties 3 Light Photons and Planck Planck s law relates the energy of a photon to its frequency or wavelength E energy of a photon h Planck s constant c speed of light wavelength of light Prelude to the Bohr Model of the Atom The Photoelectric Effect experiment explained by Einstein but performed by others What caused this strange result This is what Einstein won the Nobel Prize for The value of the constant h in this equation called Planck s constant has been shown in laboratory experiments to be h 6 625 x 10 34 J s Chemists Observations Each chemical element produces its own unique set of spectral lines Kirchhoff s Laws 4 Kirchoff s First Spectral Law Any hot body produces a continuous spectrum if it s hot enough it looks something like this digitally like this Kirchoff s Second Spectral Law Any gas to which energy is applied either as heat or a high voltage will produce an emission line spectrum like this or digitally like this Intensity Intensity Wavelength Kirchoff s Third Spectral Law Wavelength Astronomers Observations Any gas placed between a continuous spectrum source and the observer will produce a absorption line spectrum like this or digitally like this Intensity Wavelength 5 An atom consists of a small dense nucleus surrounded by electrons An atom has a small dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons Rutherford s experiments with alpha particles shot at gold foil helped determine the structure Spectral lines are produced when an electron jumps from one energy level to another within an atom The number of protons in an atom s nucleus is the atomic number for that particular element The same element may have different numbers of neutrons in its nucleus These slightly different kinds of the same elements are called isotopes The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by electrons that occupy only certain orbits or energy levels When an electron jumps from one energy level to another it emits or absorbs a photon of appropriate energy and hence of a specific wavelength The spectral lines of a particular element correspond to the various electron transitions between energy levels in atoms of that element Bohr s model of the atom correctly predicts the wavelengths of hydrogen s spectral lines 6 Bohr s formula for hydrogen wavelengths 1 R x 1 N2 1 n2 N number of inner orbit n number of outer orbit R Rydberg constant 1 097 X 107 m 1 wavelength of emitted or absorbed photon Balmer Lines in Star Spectrum Doppler Shifts Red Shift The object is moving away from the observer Blue Shift The object is moving towards the observer o v c wavelength shift o wavelength if source is not moving v velocity of source c speed of light The wavelength of a spectral line is affected by the relative motion between the source and the observer Key Words absolute zero absorption line spectrum atom atomic number Balmer line Balmer series blackbody blackbody curve blackbody radiation blueshift Bohr orbits continuous spectrum degrees Celsius