GlycolysisGlucose (a 6-carbon sugar) is broken down into 2 molecules of Pyruvate (2 3-carbon sugars) in a series of 10 chemical reactions2 molecules of ATP are producedActually, 4 molecules of ATP are producedBut, 2 molecules of ATP had to be used initially to energize Glucose so that it could be broken downElectrons (plus H ions) are transferred to molecules of NAD+, making 2 NAD:HPreparatory Step for Citric Acid CyclePyruvate enters a mitochondrionA C is removed (leaving a 2-carbon molecule), and the C leaves in the form of CO2The 2-carbon molecule is converted into a molecule called Acetyl CoAAcetyl CoA then continues into the Citric Acid CycleElectrons (plus H ions) are transferred to a molecule of NAD+, making 1 NAD:HCitric Acid CyclePyruvate (actually Acetyl CoA) is further broken down to extract more electronsDuring the breakdown, some C atoms are removed and leave the cycle in the form of CO2Also during one turn of the cycle:1 ATP is made3 NAD+ receive e- à 3 NAD:H1 FAD2+ receives e- à 1 FAD::H2(The cycle will occur twice for each one glucose that started respiration, so 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 are actually made.)Electron Transport ChainNAD:H and FAD::H2 molecules made in Glycolysis and Citric Acid Cycle enter hereNAD:H and FAD::H2 give up their e- to molecules in inner mitochondrial membrane, remaking NAD+ and FAD2+The molecules pass the e- along an electron transport chain—like a relay racer passing the batonThe final acceptor of electrons is O2½ O2 + 2 H+ + electrons à H2OATP: synthaseMakes ATPEach time the e- are handed off, H+ are left over and some energy is releasedThe “released” energy is used to pump protons (H+) across the mitochondrial membraneH+ flow down their concentration gradient through a special protein channel called ATP Synthase, which synthesizes ATPADP + P à ATP32 ATP are made in ETC for each 1 glucose that started respirationSummary of RespirationC6H12O6 + 6O2 + 36ADP à 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP(glucose)* Be sure you know where each of these molecules are used up or produced* Also know where NAD+/NAD:H or FAD2+/FAD::H2 are working in the processWhen H+ ions move through ATP synthase, they move by facilitated diffusion.Starch has more potential energy that can be used by a cell.Anaerobic Respiration (no oxygen) might see this happen when you work out.Anaerobic Respiration is an anaerobic process (occurs in absence O2) that results in the buildup of lactate (lactic acid)Without O2, ETC and Citric Acid Cycle can’t occur. Glycolysis can occur to make pyruvatepyruvate à lactic acid + CO2(from glycolysis)Lactate is toxic to cells and causes muscle cramps and fatigueOnly produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule (from Glycolysis)Structure of DNABy the 1920s it was clear that genetic material resided on chromosomesChromosomes contain both DNA and proteinIn the mid 1940s and early 1950s it was determined that DNA was the genetic materialDetermining DNA structure became critically important – it would allow us to under stand how genetics workDNA consists of two intertwined chains of subunits called nucleotidesDNA double helixEach nucleotide consists ofSugar deoxyriboseA phosphate groupA nitrogen containing baseFour types, A T G and CA&G =punnies T&C =pyrimidines3 parts of a nucleotidesugar=deoxyribose S inside of a basephosphate P with a circle around itBase 2 puraines, A, G 2 pyrimidines“2 ring” “ 1 ring “Structure of DNADNA was too small to see through the most powerful microscopes of the timeDNA’s shape could be inferred through a technique called X-ray diffractionPurified DNA was bombarded with X raysThe way these rays scatter upon impact provides information about its structureRosalind Franklin was an expert on X-ray diffractionWorked at King’s College in London, England withMaurice WilkinsUniform width of the helix could be explained by a double-ring purine always pairing with a single-ring pyrimidine…but which exact bases paired?A chemist named Chargaff studied the chemical composition of DNA, and determined the amount of each base%A = %T%G = %CA and G are purines, T and C are pyrimidine’sA DNA double helix looks like a spiral staircaseThe “handrails” consist of long chains of alternating sugar and phosphate groupsConnected by strong covalent bondsThe “steps” lying between the handrails consist of paired DNA basesConnected by weak hydrogen bonds“Complementary” Base Pairing Rules:A always pairs with TG always pairs with CBIOL 1140 1st Edition Lecture 6Outline of Last Lecture I. Plasma membrane, membrane transport, passive transporta. Endocytosis and Exocytosisb. Isotonic, osmosisc. Cell organellesII. Cellular respirationa. Glucose, starch Outline of Current Lecture I. Glycolysisa. Glucose, moleculesII. Citric acid cella. Pyruvate, acetylIII. Respirationa. Cell, anaerobicGlycolysis- Glucose (a 6-carbon sugar) is broken down into 2 molecules of Pyruvate (2 3-carbon sugars) in a series of 10 chemical reactions- 2 molecules of ATP are producedo Actually, 4 molecules of ATP are producedo But, 2 molecules of ATP had to be used initially to energize Glucose so that it could be broken down- Electrons (plus H ions) are transferred to molecules of NAD+, making 2 NAD:H Preparatory Step for Citric Acid Cycle- Pyruvate enters a mitochondrion- A C is removed (leaving a 2-carbon molecule), and the C leaves in the form of CO2- The 2-carbon molecule is converted into a molecule called Acetyl CoA- Acetyl CoA then continues into the Citric Acid Cycle- Electrons (plus H ions) are transferred to a molecule of NAD+, making 1 NAD:H These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.Citric Acid Cycle- Pyruvate (actually Acetyl CoA) is further broken down to extract more electrons- During the breakdown, some C atoms are removed and leave the cycle in the form ofCO2- Also during one turn of the cycle:o 1 ATP is madeo 3 NAD+ receive e- à 3 NAD:Ho 1 FAD2+ receives e- à 1 FAD::H2o (The cycle will occur twice for each one glucose that started respiration, so 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 are actually made.)Electron Transport Chain- NAD:H and FAD::H2 molecules made in Glycolysis and Citric Acid Cycle enter here- NAD:H and FAD::H2 give up their e- to molecules in inner mitochondrial membrane, remaking NAD+ and FAD2+- The molecules pass the e- along an electron transport chain—like a relay racer passing the