The Carnot Cycle (YAC 5-7 to 5-11)The Carnot Cycle (cont’d)The Carnot Principles/CorollariesCarnot EfficiencyFactors which affect Carnot EfficiencyCarnot Efficiency & Quality of EnergyQuality of Energy cont’dThe Carnot Cycle (YAC 5-7 to 5-11)• Idealized thermodynamic cycle consisting of four reversible processes (working fluid can be any substance):• The four steps for a Carnot Heat Engine are:  Reversible isothermal expansion (1-2, TH= constant) Reversible adiabatic expansion (2-3, Q = 0, THTL) Reversible isothermal compression (3-4, TL=constant) Reversible adiabatic compression (4-1, Q=0, TLTH)1-22-33-4 4-1Carnot cylce.pptModified 10/9/02The Carnot Cycle (cont’d)Work done by the gas =  PdV, i.e. area under the process curve 1-2-3. 123321Work done on gas = PdV, area under the process curve 3-4-1subtractNet work1234dV>0 from 1-2-3PdV>0Since dV<0PdV<0TL = const.The Carnot Principles/Corollaries1. The efficiency of an irreversible, i.e. a real, heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs. th, irrev < th, rev2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two thermal reservoirs are the same. (th, rev)A= (th, rev)B• Both of the above statements can be demonstrated using the second law (K-P statement and C-statement). Therefore, the Carnot heat engine defines the maximum efficiency any practical heat engine can (hope to) achieve. (see YAC: 5.8, for proof)• Thermal efficiency th=Wnet/QH=1-(QL/QH) = f(TL,TH) •In the next slide we will show that th=1-(QL/QH)=1-(TL/TH). •This relationship is often called the Carnot efficiency since it is usually defined in terms of a Carnot Heat Engine .Carnot EfficiencyConsider an ideal gas undergoing a Carnot cycle between two temperatures TH and TL. 1 to 2, isothermal expansion, U12 = 0QH = Q12 = W12 = PdV = mRTHln(V2/V1) (1) 2 to 3, adiabatic expansion, Q23 = 0(TL/TH) = (V2/V3)k-1 (2) 3 to 4, isothermal compression, U34 = 0QL = Q34 = W34 = - mRTLln(V4/V3) (3) 4 to 1, adiabatic compression, Q41 = 0(TL/TH) = (V1/V4)k-1 (4)From (2) & (4): (V2/V3) = (V1/V4)  (V2/V1) = (V3/V4)Since ln(V2/V1) = - ln(V4/V3); substituting for ln(V4/V3) in (1) (QL/QH )= (TL/TH)Hence: th = 1-(QL/QH )= 1-(TL/TH)It has been proven that th = 1-(QL/QH )= 1-(TL/TH) for all Carnot engines since the Carnot efficiency is independent of the working substance.Example: A typical steam power plant operates between TH=800 K (boiler) and TL=300 K(cooling tower). For this plant, the maximum achievable efficiency is 62.5%.TL = const.Factors which affect Carnot EfficiencyExample: Consider a Carnot heat engine operating between a high-temperature source at 900 K and rejecting heat to a low-temperature reservoir at 300 K. (a) Determine the thermal efficiency of the engine; (b) Show how the thermal efficiency changes as the temperature of the high-temperature source is decreased; (b) Determine the change in thermal efficiency as the temperature of the low-temperature sink is decreased thLHthHHth HLTTKTTKTT       1 13009000 667 66 7%30013009001900. .( )( )( )( )Fixed T and lowering TThe higher the temperature, the higher the "quality"of the energy: More work can be doneFixed T and increasing TL HH L200 400 600 800 100000.20.40.60.81Temperature (TH)EfficiencyTh( )TT200 400 600 800 100000.20.40.60.81Temperature (T L)EfficiencyTH( )TLTLLower THIncrease TLCarnot Efficiency & Quality of Energy• The previous example illustrates that higher the temperature of the low-temperature sink, more difficult it becomes for a heat engine to reject/transfer heat into it.• This results in a lower thermal efficiency• One reason why low-temperature reservoirs such as rivers, lakes and atmosphere are popular for heat rejection from power plants.• Similarly, the thermal efficiency of an engine, e.g a gas turbine engine, can be increased by increasing the temperature of the combustion chamber. •This may sometimes conflict with other design requirements. Example: turbine blades can not withstand high temperature (and pressure) gases, which can leads to early fatigue. A Solution: better materials and/or innovative cooling design.Quality of Energy cont’d•This illustrates that the quality of energy is an important factor in determining the efficiencies of systems. E.g. for the same amount (quantity) of total energy, it is easier – more efficient – to produce work from a high temperature reservoir than a low temperature reservoir. Consequently, extracting energy from low-temperature reservoirs such as rivers and lakes is not very efficient. E.g. solar pond/lake have typical efficiencies of around 5% •Also, work is in general more valuable – of a higher quality - relative to heat, since work can convert to heat almost with almost 100% efficiency but not the other way around. Energy becomes less useful when it is transferred to and stored in a low-temperature