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BIOL 244: Exam 1
Major endocrine glands and location within the body |
Cranial: pituitary, pineal, hypothalamus
Thoracic: thyroid, parathyroid, thymus
Abdominal: adrenal (suprarenal) & pancreas
Abdominopelvic: gonads [testis (m) & ovary (f)] |
Endocrine gland |
Secrete their products (hormones) into the extracellular space (ECF, blood, etc) |
Water-soluble hormone mechanism of action |
cAMP 2nd messenger system
1. Hormone (peptide, glyolipid, etc) binds receptor
2. Associated g-protein complex activated
3. Activated g-protein activates adenylate cyclase
4. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
5. cAMP activates protein kinases
6. Kinase triggers downstream response (e.g. stimulating vesicle secretion or up-regulating enzyme activity) |
Lipid-soluble hormone mechanism of action |
Acts on gene expression; diffuses through P.M.; hormone complex
1. Steroid hormone diffuses through lipid membrane into intracellular space
2. Binds an intracellular receptor (either cytosolic or nuclear)
3. Once transported into the nucleus, the hormone-receptor complex binds specific DNA region
4. Transcription produces mRNA
5. Transcript --> Proteins --> Cellular response |
Three types of endocrine gland stimuli |
1. Humoral
2. Neural
3. Hormonal |
Humoral stimulus |
Release induced by altered levels of important ions/nutrients.
E.g. Low Ca2+--> PTH release by parathyroid gland --> Osteoclasts degrade matrix --> Blood Ca levels increase |
Neural stimulus |
Induced by AP from a neuron
e.g. AP in pre-ganglionic symp fibers to adrenal medulla --> Medulla cells secrete norep/epi |
Hormonal stimulus |
Release caused by another hormone (tropic hormone)
e.g. Hormones from hypothalamus travel through hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system to anterior pituitary and induce release of hormones by anterior pituitary (which act on other glands) |
Nerve bundles in hypothalamus that synth oxytocin & ADH |
Supraoptic nucleus: ADH
Paraventricular nucleus: oxytocin |
Posterior lobe mass % of pituitary |
Posterior lobe is ~25% of pituitary mass |
Hormone release from posterior pituitary |
1. Hypothalamic neurons synthesize oxytocin/ADH.
2. Oxytocin & ADH are transported down the axons of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract to the posterior pituitary
3. Oxytocin/ADH stored in axon terminals in P.P.
4. When associated hypothalamic neurons fire, APs arriving @ terminals cause Oxytocin/ADH to be released into the blood |
Hormone release from anterior pituitary |
1. When stimulated, hypothalamic neurons secrete RH/IHs into primary capillary plexus
2. Hypothalamic hormones travel through portal veins to A.P. where they stimulate release of hormones made in the A.P.
3. In response, the A.P. secretes hormones into the secondary capillary plexus which empties into general circulation |
Anterior lobe mass % |
Anterior lobe is ~75% of pituitary mass |
7 hormones secreted by A.P. |
GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL, & MSH |
Oxytocin: type of molecule, storage location, and site of synthesis |
Peptide, mostly from paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus and stored in P.P. |
ADH: what type of molecule and site of synthesis |
Peptide, mostly from neurons in supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus and stored in P.P. |
Growth hormone (GH): type of molecule and site of synthesis/storage |
Protein produced by somatotropic cells; release stimulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) |
TSH: type of molecule and site of synthesis |
Glycoprotein produced by thyrotropic cells |
ACTH: type of molecule and site of synthesis
|
Peptide produced by corticotropic cells |
FSH: type of molecule and site of synthesis |
Glycoprotein produced by gonadotropic cells |
LH: type of molecule and site of synthesis |
Glycoprotein produced by gonadotropic cells; release stimulated by GnRH |
PRL: type of molecule and site of synthesis |
Protein produced by prolactin cells |
Oxytocin: target organ & effects |
Uterus: initiates labor; stimulates uterine contractions
Breast: initiates milk ejection |
ADH: target organ & effects |
Kidneys: Stimulates kidney tubule cells to reabsorb water |
GH: target organ & effects |
Liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, and other tissues: anabolic hormone; stimulates somatic growth; mobilizes fats; spares glucose
Growth-promoting effects mediated by IGFs |
TSH: target organ & effects |
Thyroid gland: stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid hormone |
ACTH: target organ & effects |
Adrenal cortex: promotes release of glucocorticoids and androgens (mineralocorticoids to a lesser extent) |
FSH: target organ & effects |
Ovaries/Testes: Follicle maturation and estrogen production in females; sperm production in males |
LH: target organ & effects |
Ovaries and testes: triggers ovulation and stimulates estrogen/progesterone production in females; promotes testosterone production in males |
Prolactin: target organ & effects |
Breast secretory tissue: promotes lactation |
Oxytocin: effects of hypo/hypersecretion
|
Unknown |
ADH: effects of hypo/hypersecreti |
Hypo: Diabetes insipidus
Hyper: syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion |
GH: effects of hypo/hypersecretio |
Hypo: pituitary dwarfism in children
Hyper: Gigantism in children; acromegaly in adults |
TSH: effects of hypo/hypersecreti |
Hypo: cretinism in children; myxedema in adults
Hyper: hyperthyroidism; effects similar to those of Grave's disease |
ACTH: effects of hypo/hypersecreti |
Hypo: Rare
Hyper: Cushing's disease |
FSH: effects of hypo/hypersecretio |
Hypo: failure of sexual maturation
Hyper: Nothing remarkable |
LH: effects of hypo/hypersecretio |
Hypo: failure of sexual maturation
Hyper: Nothing remarkable |
PRL: effects of hypo/hypersecretio |
Hypo: poor milk production in nursing women
Hyper: Galactorrhea; censation of menses in females; impotence in males |
Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion |
TRH secreted by hypothalamus --> stimulates TSH release by A.P. --> stimulates thyroid hormone release from thyroid gland --> T.H.s act on target cells & also inhibit release of TRH/TSH by the hypothalamus and A.P., respectively |
Anatomy of the thyroid gland
|
Two lobes (separated by isthmus); lies on trachea; hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage located superior to gland; gland is VERY vascularized |
Hormones produced by thyroid gland
|
T3, T4, & calcitonin |
Thyroid histology |
Gland composed of large, hollow, spherical follicles filled with colloid. Follicular cells produce T3/T4; parafollicular cells produce calcitonin |
T3/T4 formation |
Know that idodine is attached to tyrosine in colloid, forming DIT/MIT (which are linked to form T3/T4) |
Goiter & Grave's disease
|
Goiter: enlarged thyroid
Grave's disease: causes exophthalmos |
Parathyroid glands |
located on posterior aspect of thyroid; usually 4 parathyroid glands; Chief cells secrete PTH; oxyphil cell f(x) still unknown |
Effects of PTH on bone, kidneys |
Hypocalcemia --> PTH release --> increased calcium reabsorbtion in kidney tubule and increased osteoclast activity --> increased blood calcium |
4 layers of adrenal gland, hormones secreted, and associated region |
Cortex:
Zona glomerulosa - aldosterone
Zona fasciculata - cortisol
Zona reticularis - androgens
Medulla:
Medulla - epinephrine & norepinephrine |
FFF |
Effects result of epi/norep release from adrenal medulla |
Mineralcorticoids (chiefly aldosterone): site of synthesis and target organ and effects |
Zona glomerulosa (cortex)
Kidneys: increase blood Na & decrease blood K --> increase in BV/BP because water reabsorption accompanies Na retention |
Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol): site of synthesis and target organ and effects |
Zona fasciulata (middle) - cortex
Body cells: promotes gluconeogenesis and hyperglycemia; depress inflammatory and immune resonses |
Gonadocorticoids (primarily androgens) |
Zona reticularis - cortex
Insignificant effects in males
In females: contributes to libido, development of pubic/axillary hair/estrogen source post-menopause |
Catecholamines (epi/norep): site of synthesis and target organ and effects |
Adrenal medulla
Sympathetic NS target organs: mimic symp nervous system activation; increased HR/metabolic rate/BP(by promoting vasocontriction) |
Mineralcorticoids (chiefly aldosterone): effects of hypo/hypersecretio |
Hyper: Aldosteronism
Hypo: Addison's disease |
Liver/muscle response to insulin deficiency, resulting conditions, and associated signs/symptoms |
... |
Glucorticoids (chiefly cortisol): effects of hypo/hypersecreti |
Hyper: Cushing's syndrome ("buffalo hump")
Hypo: Addison's disease |
Gonadocorticoids (chiefly androgens): effects of hypo/hypersecretio |
Hyper: Masculization of females
Hypo: No effects known |
Catecholamines (norep/epi): effects of hypo/hypersecretio |
Hyper: Prolonged FFF; hypertension
Hypo: unimportant |
Stress and the adrenal gland: short-term stress response |
Medulla causes increase in HR, BP, metabolic rate and bronchial dilation |
Stress and the adrenal gland: long-term response |
Mineralocorticoids from cortex cause Na/H2O retention, BV/BP increase
Glucocorticoids from cortex cause increase in blood glucose and immune system suppression |
Pancreatic islet |
alpha cells (1-a) - produce glucagon
beta cells (1-b) - produce insulin
Pancreatic acinar cells (2) - exocrine |
Diabetes mellitus I & II |
I is insulin dependent
II is insulin non-dependent |
Liver response to insulin deficiency, resulting conditions, and associated signs/symptoms |
Response: Glycogenolysis
Resulting conditions: hyperglycemia in blood; glycosuria and diuresis in urine
Signs/symptoms: polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia |
Liver/muscle response to insulin deficiency, resulting conditions, and associated signs/symptoms |
Organ/tissue response: glycogenolysis
Resulting conditions: hyperglycemia in blood; glycosuria and diuresis in urine
Signs/symptoms: polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia |
Liver/fat resulting conditions and signs/symptoms associated with insulin deficiency |
Resulting conditions: limidemia & ketoacidosis in blood; ketonuria in urine
Signs & symptoms: acetone breath, hyperpnea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, cardiac irregularities, CNS deppression/coma |
Source of gastrin?
|
Mucosa of stomach |
Source of ghrelin? |
Mucosa of stomach |
Source of secretin? |
Mucosa of duodenum (of small intestine) |
Source of CCK?
|
Mucosa of duodenum |
Source of ANP and effect? |
In atria of the heart and f(x) to decrease BP |
Source of EPO, effect, and production stimulus? |
From kidney and f(x) to stimulate the production of RBC in response to increased O2 demands |
Source of cholecalciferol (provitamin d3)?
|
Skin (epidermal cells) |
Exocrine gland mode of action and gland examples |
Secrete their products into ducts (sweeat, salivary, digestive glands) |
Endocrine system f(x)s |
Regulate internal environment
Regulate metabolism/energy balance
Regulate muscular contraction & secretion by glands
Maintain homeostasis
Vital role in: growth, development, and reproduction |
Two classes of hormones and precursors |
Water-soluble: amines, peptides, proteins, or glycoproteins (A.A. precursor)
Fat-soluble: steroid/steroid-like substances synthesized from cholesterol |
Pituitary gland (hypophysis) called the ___
|
Master gland |
ADH inhibited by what? |
Alcohol |
Thyroid gland weight |
~1 oz |
colloid |
clear, viscous glycoprotein that stores t3/t4 |
parafollicular cells |
synthesize calcitonin |
thyroid hormone synthesis and transport |
synthesized from iodine and tyrosine within thyroglobulin
transported mostly by thyroxine-binding protein |
t3/t4 affect every organ except?
|
brain (adult), spleen, testes, uterus, thyroid gland |
t3/t4 major ___ hormone and f(x)s |
metabolic
regulate lipid(downreg)/protein (upreg) metabolism
increase rate of protein synth
increase the rate @which energy is released from carbs
accelerate growth/devel
stimulate n.s. activity |
ant pit "structure" |
enclosed by dense collagenous CT and consists of mostly epi tissue |
five types of ant pit cells |
somatotrophs
lactotrophs
corticotrophs
thryotrophs
gonadotrophs |
somatotrophs |
HGH (eff non-endocrine) |
Lactotrophs |
PRL (eff-non endo) |
corticotrophs |
ACTH & MSH (tropins) |
thyrotrophs |
TSH |
Gonadotrophs |
FSH/LH (tropins) |
Grave's symp |
increased metabolic rate
restlessness
overeating
weightloss
overeating: increased hr/temp
exophthalamus |
cretinism |
hyperthyroidism in children
abnormal bone dev
low temp
retarded mental dev |
myxedema |
hyperthyroidism in adults |
calcitonin |
lowers blood ca
inhibits osteoclasts and increases ca excretion by kidneys |
melatonin precursor |
serotonin |
thymus gland location |
mediastinum |
hormones that affect t-cell production |
thymosin
thymopoietins |
cells that produce androgens
|
interstitial cells |
cells that produce inhibin |
sustenacular cells |
cells that produce estrogens/inhibin in f |
follicular cells |
cells that produce progestins/relaxin |
corpus luteum |
relaxin effects |
loosens pubic symphysis and relaxes cervical muscles during childbirth |
hematocrit |
% of ___ in blood |
physio blood ph |
7.35-7.45 |
physio blood temp |
98.7 |
physio blood volume |
5-6 |
blood component splits |
RBCs - 45%
Plasma - 55%
Leukocytes - <1% |
water % of plasma volume |
90% |
plasma proteins % of plasma and f(x) |
8% maintain water balance in blood and tissues |
globulins % of plasma proteins and f(x) |
transport/immune f(x) |
alpha/beta globulin f(x) |
transport |
gamma globulin |
antibodies |
fibrinogen % of plasma proteins and f(x) |
4% and blood clot f(x) |
nonprotein nitrogenous substances |
urea/nh3 etc in plasma |
plasma made wehere |
trabeculae of epiphyses |
what gives rbc flexibility and what % o2/co2 & Hb |
anucleated; spectrin; 97% hb and 3% co2/o2; biconcave |
Hb structure |
globin (2 alpha and beta chains) and four heme groups |
RBC formation |
hemocytoblast -->proerythroblast (day 1) -->basophilic erythroblast (early - day 2; ribosome synthesis) --> polychromatic erythroblast (day 3; late; hemoglobin accumulation) -->orthochromatic erythroblast (normoblast; day 4; Hb accum)--> reticulocyte (nuc ejection; days 5-7) --> erythrocyte (days 5-7) |
Total WBC count |
4800-11000 |
Granulocyte types |
neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils |
agranulocyte types |
lymphocytes & monocytes |
abundance of immune cell types in blood |
neutro 40-70%
eosino 4%
baso 1%
lympho 20-45%
mono 4-8% |
leukopenia |
abnormally low wbc |
leukemias q |
cancerous condition ^wbcs |
mononucleosis |
kissing disorder (viral is epstein-barr virus) |
RBC diameter, count per microliter, production, and life span |
4-6mil
d:5-7
LS: 100-120 days |
luekocyte count per microliter |
4800-11000 |
neutrophil nucleus type and f(x) |
multilobed & phagocytize bacteria |
eosinophil nuc type/f(x) |
biloped nuc & role inallergy/asthma |
basophil nuc type & f(x) |
histamine release contain heperin |
lymphocyte f(x) |
mount immune response |
monocyte f(x) |
phagocytosis |
platelets contents, stain color, concentration, lifespan, and function |
grunlated, deep purple, 250-500k, D;4-5 days; ls: 5-10 days |
Platelet formation |
Hematopoietic stem cell (hemocytoblast) --> megakaryoblast (stage I megakaryocyte) --> megakaryocyte (stage II/III) --> megakaryocyte (stage IV) --> platelets |
kidney hormones involved in blood |
thrombopoetin and erythropoetin |
clotting process |
tear in vascular tissue
platelet plug formation
platelets release chemicals that promote adhesion of more platelets
fibrin forms mesh (coag) |
clotting factors |
13 |
activates extrinsic clotting pathway |
factor 3 (tissue factor)
|
regulate vit k
|
2,7,9,10 (all produced in liver) |
deficiency = hemophilia |
factor VIII |
clotting phases |
post i.p./e.p.:
ph 1: form of prothrombin activator (thromboplastin)
ph 2: prothrombin to thrombin via thromboplastin
ph3: fibrinogen (soluble) to fibrin (insol polymer) via thrombin
ph4: thrombin forms crosslinked mesh |
rbc antigens and associated antibodies |
A/B:none
B: anti-A
A: anti-B
O: none |
universal donor |
O |
universal recipient |
AB |
administered when complications with blood type during 2nd pregnancy |
RhoGam |