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GEO-SCI 103: Exam 2
Structure of water |
2 hydrogen atoms (1 proton 1 electron) and one oxygen atom (8 protons 8 neutrons 8 electrons)
-2 e filling inner orbit
-6 e filling outer orbit |
Asymmetrical distribution of electron charge |
H end more positive
O end more negative |
Hydrogen bond |
Relatively weak electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ends of adjacent water molecules" |
Energy in H bonds |
Energy*is*required*to*break*H*bonds,*and*energy*is*released*wh |
Water
(solid phase) |
-ice
-crystalline structure less dense than liquid water |
Water
(liquid phase) |
-liquid water more dense than ice |
Water
(gas phase) |
-vapor
-hight energy molecules with few h-bonds |
Water has a high...and is a good... |
-surface tension
-solvent |
The sun showers every square meter of the ocean with how much energy/second?
|
1430 calories |
Surface area of the ocean |
The surface area of the"ocean"is"361"x"10^12""m2 |
Mass of water in ocean |
"1.4"x"10^24"g." |
Latent heat |
–The amount of energy required to change the physical without changing the temperature |
Condensation/precipitation
|
-h bonds reformed
-latent heat released to the atmosphere |
Evaporation
|
-h bonds broken
-latent heat removed from the ocean |
Runoff |
Surface & subsurface waters |
Latent heat of fusion |
80 calories |
Latent heat of vaporization |
540 calories |
Latent heat of vaporization |
heat energy is required to break hydrogen bonds when ice melts (80 cal/g) and when water evaporates (540 cal/g) |
Latent heat of fusion |
heat energy is released to the atmosphere as hydrogen bonds form when water freezes (80 cal/g) and when water vapor condenses |
Hydrologic cycle |
redistributes heat around the planet by cycling water b/w the ocean, atmosphere, and land |
Sensible heat |
It takes 100 cal of heat to raise the temp of 1 gram of water from 0 to 100 degrees C |
Sublimination |
changing from a solid to a gas |
Latent |
present but not visible, in a hidden phase |
How can you determine the salt content of sea water? |
-evaporate it
-refractometer
-conductivity meter |
2 most common ions in seawater |
Na+
Cl- |
Sea Salts |
-Chloride 55%
-Sodium 30.6%
-Sulfate 7.7%
-Magnesium 3.7%
-Calcium 1.2%
-Potassium 1.1%
-Minor constituents 0.7% |
Where do salts (dissolved ions) come from? |
-rivers contain dissolved ions in low concentrations
-obtain these ions from the chemical breakdown of rocks on the continents |
Why is seawater not concentrated river water? |
-may be other sources of ions to the ocean
-ions may be leaving the ocean (sinks)
-concept of residence time |
Where else are chloride and sulfate common? |
volcanic gases and fluids |
Hydrothermal circulation at spreading centers |
chemical reactions b/w hot volcanic rocks and icy cold seawater |
Residence time |
-amount of component in seawater/rate of addition or removal of
that component
-elements/ions that have biogenic output often have low concentrations & residence times |
Sources of dissolved salts in seawater |
-chemical weathering of rocks
-volcanic emissions
-hydrothermal activity on the seafloor
-fluid flowing out of accretionary prisms |
Sinks for salts |
-biological recycling
-burial in sediments
-ionic exchange
-subduction |
Average ocean salinity |
35% |
Summary of ocean salinity |
-all naturally occurring elements are dissolved in seawater
-multiple sources of dissolved salts in seawater
-chemical composition of the ocean has remained relatively constant over time because input = output |
Solar footprint |
-low angle of incidence in the high latitudes creates large solar footprint (solar energy dispersed across a wide area)
-high angle of incidence creates small solar footprint (solar energy focused on narrow area of the Earth's surface) |
Radiation |
-hotter objects emit mostly shorter wavelength (UV and visible light)
-cooler objects emit mostly longer wavelength (infrared light) |
Net radiation |
difference between the radiant energy absorbed and the radiant energy emitted |
Gradients of temp & pressure across the globe...
|
drive fluid motions that act to balance the unequal distribution of heat
|
Avogadro's principle |
a fixed volume of gas at the same temp and pressure has the same # of molecules no matter what gas is in the container |
When is Earth closest to the sun? |
N. hemisphere winter |
Thermal stratification |
-mixed layer (near surface where temp is roughly that of surface water)
-thermocline (part of water column where temp decreases rapidly from the mixed layer temp to the much colder deep water temp) |
Seasonality in temperate waters |
-winter storms tend to be bigger than summer storms
-summer heating and less mixing by storms causes a seasonal thermocline at mid-latitudes |
Why is a permanent thermocline absent in polar regions? |
b/c surface waters and deep waters are very cold |
Seawater density is a function of... |
-temp and salinity
-colder = denser and saltier |
Sigma tee |
(density-1.000) X 1000 |
Circumference of Earth at the equator |
24,000 miles
24 hrs to make rotation
24,000/24 = 1,000 mph |
Which way does the Earth rotate looking down from the North Pole? |
counter clock wise |
Which way does the Earth rotate looking up from the South Pole? |
clock wise |
Coriolis effect |
causes air masses and water masses to be deflected to the RIGHT in the N. HEMISPHERE and to the LEFT in the S. HEMISPHERE |
Hadley cell |
-thermal circulation consisting of rising air near the equator and sinking air towards the poles
-hadley cell only reaches to mid latitudes |
Weather |
day to day changes in the atmosphere |
Climate |
seasonal progression of weather in a particular region and its year to year characteristics averaged over decades |
Why do hurricanes originate near the equator? |
-low humid air = low pressure system = storms
- tracks curve b/c of Coriolis effect
-spin counter clock wise b/c air is directed into the low pressure system |
Isobars |
lines of equal pressure |
Air-sea frictional coupling |
-friction within water causes the surface layer to drag/push the layer below it |
Eckman spiral |
-when the Coriolis effect causes each layer of water to move slightly to the right (N. hemisphere) of the water layer moving above it
-surface current: ~45 degrees to prevailing wind
-net current direction: ~90 degrees to prevailing wind |
Upwelling & downwelling |
-upwelling- where water is divergent (moving apart)
-downwelling- where water is converging (piling up) |
Pressure gradient |
-with a height difference water wants to flow downhill
-deflected by Coriolis effect |
Geostrophic flow and western intensification |
-geostrophic flow causes a hill to form in subtropical gyres
-the center of the gyre is shifted to the west because of Earth's rotation
-western boundary currents are intensified
|
How to build a gyre |
-sun emits short wave radiation
-air warmed by heat transfer from ocean rises and moves toward poles
-moving air deflected by Coriolis resulting in meal zonal wind patterns
-wind moves surface layer of ocean (Ekman transport)
-surface drift piles up water in western half of subtropical oceans
-water flows from high/low pressure - flow deflected by Coriolis, geostrophic currents establish subtropical gyres |