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BY 116: EXAM 1
know the topics addressed by physiology |
molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms; population
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know the how to sequentially order topics addressed by physiology and each level's unique functional contribution |
molecules: everything is described at the molecular level
cells: cells make up living organisms; life only exists from a pre-existing life form
tissues: organize into organs; highly dependent on certain environments to do their job
organs: provide us a vital purpose
organ systems: multiple organs together;
organisms: group of organ systems
population: group of organisms
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Describe the anatomical organs of each organ system and explain each system's primary |
nervous: brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves; control organ function, coordinate bodily functions, higher mental capacities
endocrine: diffuse glands; control organ function, coordinate bodily functions with regulating molecules
circulatory: heart, vessels, blood; distribute vital and nonessential materials
respiratory: lungs, nasopharynx, trachea, bronchi, pulmonary circulation; soluble gas exchange
digestive: oropharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestinal tract, bowel; nutrient acquisition,conversion and absorption of essential nutrients, waste removal
urinary: kidney, bladder, ureter, urethra; fluid balance and waste removal
reproductive: gonads, penis/vagina and uterus; gamete oogenesis, propagation of species
musculoskeletal: skeletal bones and muscles; rigidity and body movement, support to soft tissues
immune: RBM, thymus, lymph nodes and vessels; internal defense to injury, wound repair
integumentary: skin, hair, nails, peripheral nerve endings, venous reserve; physical encasement, body defense, regulation of body temperature
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know the types of questions asked in physiology and the type of answers sought |
teleological: represents a significance - the purpose; explains why we do it
mechanistic: represents a process over time - the steps; serial process (steps), conditional process (circumstances)
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know the method of scientific inquiry and the variables addressed in an experiment |
1. develop a hypothesis: educated estimar of purpose, events, reactions, or processes
2. plan and implement an experiment:
variables: independent (can be adjusted/manipulated); dependent (observed to change; effect of a process)
controls: negative (no response expected); positive(known response is expected)
design types: correlative (cause/effect); crossover (switch groups part way through experiment); blind study(eliminate placebo bias); double blind (eliminate placebo and investigator bias)
3. organizing and interpreting experimental results (table and graph data)
4. drawing conclusions (trends and effects; statistical difference; criticism and alternative interpretations
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know the definition of homeostasis and the processes of a homeostatic reflex and be able to order the sequential steps |
stable internal environment through dynamic adaption to external stimuli;
input signal (direct/indirect, threshold) -- integrating center (voluntary/ involuntary)-- output signal -- response
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know the variables under mass balance and how each variable can be adjusted if imbalance occurs |
fluid, body elements, temperature, nutrients;
variables: intake, production output
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know the major themes addressing a physiological topic and what each theme addresses for our knowledge of the topic |
homeostasis; mass balance and mass flow; integration (multiple systems for a single purpose); communication (control of cellular function; signals of control are biological languages); structure - function (compartmentation; mechanical, physical, electrical, and chemical transformations; molecule to molecule interaction); metabolism(chemical reactions; energy states and forms; resources (storage and allocation); substrate exchange; biologically active products)
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describe the qualities possessed by the cell to which it become the fundamental unit of life |
originate from preexisting cells;have DNA and protein molecules; grow and replicate; compartmentalize internal work; sense and exchange with environment; adapt and evolve in dynamic environment; works against and avoids equilibrium
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come to know the concepts of integrated, basal and maximum, and emergent functions |
integrated: more than one piece contributes to the whole
basal:minimum amount of work that can be measures; resting
maximum: the maximum amount of work a system can do; can't stay here for very long; normal day is 25-30% max
emergent: derived from the sum of many individual properties
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explain the various
response loops observed in human physiology |
negative feedback loop: output will restore "set point" and cause reflex to terminate; normal, usual loop
positive feedback loop: output is reason for more output; continuous cycle with no end until something breaks communication in reflex; not common - pregnancy
feed forward loop: no input, controller "anticipates" need for output; usually a conscious doing; prepares body for an event to better accomplish it
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mass flow |
amount per minute = [X] * flow rate
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know the difference between major and trace elements |
major: in large amounts in body; make up about 99% total; H, C, N, O, P, S
minor: in small amounts (usually less and .01%); make up about 1% total; Na, Mg, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cl, I
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know the reason why biological chemistry relies on small, yet reactive elements |
molecules must be reactive in order to form bonds
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know the names and types of chemical bonds and their properties and formation |
ionic: strong; break and form spontaneously; cation and anion
covalent; strong; bonds are stable; share electrons; polar or nonpolar
hydrogen: weak; stable dipole; help keeps shapes stable in body; between many polar bonds
van der Waals forces: weak; "proton -- electron" resonance; polar and negative attraction because of electrons movement in electron clouds; makes molecules vibrate helping with flexibility and reactivity
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know the thermodynamic laws and know how these affect biological life |
1. energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system
2. entropy of any isolated system always increases.
3. entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
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know how a molecule is described and characterized |
molecular mass; bond strength and stability; stereochemistry(shape principle); chemical form found in humans (matter principle); chemical solutions (solubility principle)
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know how the different biomolecules behave in a water environment |
carbohydrates: hydrophilic, water soluble
lipids: most insoluble; hydrophobic
protein:
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know each biomolecule family and members by name |
water (65-100 oz; 2-3L per day); carbohydrates (8-9 oz per day); lipids (1-2 oz per day); protein (8-9 oz per day); electrolytes (salts); nucleotides/nucleic acids
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know what dietary sources are best consumed for the different biomolecules |
lipids: fish, nuts, dairy, lean red meats
proteins: meat, legumes, peas/ soybeans, nuts, dairy
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know what SoFAS foods are and why the USDA is focused on limiting them |
solid fats and added sugars; the obesity rates continue to increase across the US
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know what enzymes are, their special qualities, and how they help the cell in achieving life |
speed up and control reactions
properties: specificity and affinity
specificity: only one reactant can fit active site properly affinity:attractive force for a certain reactant
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carbohydrate chemical characteristics - attributes, and all the physiological purposes each gives to cell life |
most abundant
simple: (CH2O)n; Hexose (6C); monosaccharides and disaccharides
monosaccharides: fructose, glucose, galactose
disaccharides: sucrose (glucose + fructose); maltose (glucose + glucose); lactose ( glucose + galactose)
complex: polysaccharides -- glycogen, starch, and cellulose; cellulose = dietary fiber
biological uses: glycolysis (energy fuel); functional groups of other biomolecules (ribose and deoxyribose; glycosylation)
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lipids chemical characteristics - attributes, and all the physiological purposes each gives to cell life |
fats: glycerol + fatty acid; saturated vs unsaturated: phosphorylated (add phosphate group) or glycosylated (attached to hydroxyl or other functional group)
cholesterol and steroids: 4 Carbon ring
arachidonic acid: 20 Carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid that makes eicosanoids; arachidonic acid controls signals to leukotrienes and prostaglandins; eicosanoids control immune activity
triglyceride: fat storage; 3 fatty acids chains on glycerol backbone
fat-soluble vitamins:cofactors (compounds required in a chemical reaction) Vitamin A (eye),D (small intestine; calcium regulation),E (liver; major antioxidant),K (blood clotting)
biological uses: fat storage; cofactors; health benefits from hormones/vitamins
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major human saturated fat: |
palmitic acid; 16 Carbons
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major human unsaturated fat: |
oleic acid (monounsaturated); 18 Carbons
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omega fatty acid: |
linolenic acid (polyunsaturated) ; 18 carbons
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most fat brought in used to make what? |
palmitic acid, oleic acid, cholesterol
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phospholipid makes 1 or 3 structures: |
phospholipid bilayer;
micelles (found in blood, lymph system - how we carry fats through body);
liposome (parts of membrane that become hollow transport tubes - how we get large molecules into and out of cell)
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nucleotide/ nucleic acid chemical characteristics - attributes, and all the physiological purposes each gives to cell life |
nucleotides: nitrogenous base; pentose sugar; phosphate group
nucleic acids: DNa transcribed to mRNA translated by tRNA and rRNA
biological uses:information storage; information usage; protein formation; building blocks for nucleic acids; energy; chemical signals (cAMP)
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proteins chemical characteristics - attributes, and all the physiological purposes each gives to cell life |
most fundamental and versatile;
central carbon with amine group, R groups, carboxyl group and H
amino acids and peptide bond: 20 total, 9 essential
peptides and polypeptides: formed by peptide bond;
structure: 1st: sequence of amino acids, 2nd: alpha helix or pleated sheet, 3rd: fibrous - structural or globular - enzymatic, 4th - multiple proteins
properties of proteins: specificity and affinity; protein isoforms; protein modulation - conjugated proteins
biological uses; reaction rate and protein concentration; saturation and protein concentration; categories of proteins and functions
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know the anatomical and physiological characterization of the primary tissues and what each is specialized to do |
epithelial; connective; muscular; nervous
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know what the structures in the membrane are and what they are useful for |
phospholipid bilayer; glycocalyx (carbohydrate; sugar coating on stop of cell; sticky, traps molecules); integral proteins (span length of membrane; transporters and surface receptor proteins; specific for what they interact with); associated proteins; enzymes (uses membrane as reactant in chemical reactions; important in cell communication)
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list the primary work of the plasma membrane |
maintaining fluid compartment solutions; membrane attachments; exchange and transport work; provides sensory awareness of environment;
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know why the plasma membrane is selectively permeable and what gives it this property |
to control and regulate transport;
phospholipid membrane and proteins
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know what molecules can move by diffusion or actively across the membrane |
diffusion: channels
active: pumps, carriers, receptors, vesicles
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know why sodium is used in co-transport mechanisms |
it is already in large amounts outside of the cell due to the Na+/K+ pumps; it brings glucose into the cell with it
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know how the physiology of the membrane supports mass action and thus disequilibrium |
mass action: for a reaction at equilibrium, the ratio of substrates to products is always the same
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know how water, permeable, and non permeable molecules will move to establish isoosmolar conditions and keep the fluid compartments equally concentrated but unequal in volume |
water: will move to areas of higher solute concentration, creating a larger volume of water on one side
permeable: will move across the membrane from high to low solute concentrations, leaving the volume the same
non permeable: water flows from low to high solute concentration, cell can't do anything about it
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know the definition of cellular tonicity and the kinds of osmotic movements that cause tonicity changes |
hyperosmotic: ECF has a higher concentration than ICF; water moves out of cell causing it to shrink
isosmotic: ECF and ICF have equal concentrations; healthy and happy cell
hypotonic: ECF has lower concentration than ICF; water comes into cell; cell lyses
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define the forces acting on permeable molecules and how the membrane must work to oppose them |
chemical and electrical forces are acting on them to go to equilibrium; cell uses active transport
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Define the equilibrium potential and the Nernst's calculated value for the 2 most concentrated ions |
K+ : -84 mV
Na+ : 60 mV
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know why potassium and sodium are the most important ions affecting the life of the cell |
they control the charge inside the cell the most
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define how the resting membrane potential is affected by ion movement |
resting potential is -70mV; if Na+ comes into the cell, the cell becomes more positive; the more K= that leaves, the more negative the cell becomes; the cell cannot live beyond +60 and -90mV
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know why the cell works so hard to continuously move small molecules across the membrane |
iso-osmotic conditions; chemical and electrical disequilibrium; cells sense changes to polarity and chemical composition to direct the type of metabolism required to live
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know the different forms of cellular communication across the membrane |
electrical and chemical
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know Feedback Inhibition as manipulated variables that drive cellular metabolism |
product is the chemical that will inhibit its own production
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glycolysis start product |
glucose; takes place in cytoplasm
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critical steps and enzymes in glycolysis |
key intermediate molecules in glycolysispriming phase ( glucose phosphorylated -1ATP; add phosphate -1ATP) , payoff phase
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key intermediate molecules in glycolysis |
when phosphate i added in the 3rd step of glycolysis, glucose becomes fructose 1,6 bisP and is then committed to the process of glycolysis
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fates for pyruvate |
PDH (pyruvate dehydrogenase): in mitochondria; aerobic; makes 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 NADH, 2 CO2
LDH (lactose dehydrogenase): in cytoplasm; anaerobic makes pyruvate using energy (4 NADH) into lactic acid
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know the products of glycolysis |
2 pyruvate, 2 net ATP, 2 NADH
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fat energy metabolism |
glycerol backbone goes through glycolysis; fatty acids enters to mitochondria for beta oxidation
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beta oxidation starting reactant |
fatty acid
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critical steps and enzymes in beta oxidation |
B-oxidase cleave fatty acid chain into 2 carbon units
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know the products of beta oxidation |
1 Acetyl CoA for every 2 carbon section; 1 NADH and 1 FADH2 for every time it cuts
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starting reactant of deamination |
protein
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critical steps and enzymes in deamination |
proteins are broken into amino acids by hydrolysis of their peptide bonds; break down to make Acetyl CoA; Acetyl CoA makes glucose and is sent to liver (gluconeogenesis); releases enzyme deaminase (releases ammonia)
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key intermediate molecules in deamination |
amino acids, Acetyl CoA
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know the products of deamination |
glucose
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starting reactants of Kreb's cycle |
in mitochondria; Acetyl CoA (from beta-oxidation of PDH)
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critical steps and enzymes in Kreb's cycle |
Acetyl CoA + oxaloacetate + citrate synthase
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know the products of the Kreb's cycle |
2 CO2 (waste)
1 ATP
3 NADH
1 FADH2
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starting reactants in oxidative phosphorylation |
NADH, FADH2
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critical steps and enzymes in oxidative phosphorylation |
NADH energizes pump 1, releases H+, gives e- to pump 2, repeat through pump 3;
FADH2 energizes pump 2, releases H+, gives e- to pump 3, repeat for pump 3
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know the products of oxidative-phosphorylation |
3 H+ per NADH
2 H+ per FADH2
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know the products of ATP synthesis |
3 ATP per NADH
2 ATP per FADH2
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modulation methods |
concentration (amount); isoforms (same form, slightly different); allosteric modification (modification determines whether active site forms); cleavage of proenzymes (can turn on when need it); cofactor and coenzymes (enhances reactant to find enzyme); cellular location
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