123 Cards in this Set
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Prior to the 1800s
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-Most people inhabited rural communities
-Homogenous communities (little diversity)
-Often knew everyone within community
-Limited opportunities to learn about the outside world
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Enter the Industrial Revolution
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-1760-1840
-Transition from hand production to machinery production
-Mass migration from rural to urban areas
-Rise of the factory system
-Heterogeneous communities (much diversity)
-Often knew few within community
-Learned about the world through mass media sources
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The Direct Effects Model: Media message->audience consumption->public opinion, values, actions
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Claims mass media consumption has a direct (often negative) effect on audiences.
Audiences are passive and cannot prevent the mass media influences.
Messages shape the public's opinions, values, and actions.
Reflects the consumed messages
After WWI, many feared media messages would h…
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4 Primary Message Effects
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Attitudinal Effects
Behavioral Effects
Cognitive Effects
Psychological Effects
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Cognitive Effects
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Short-term learning of information
Most common & observable message effect
People learn more from media content:
Desire for informed, interpersonal conversations
Like or can relate to the message sender
Personal interests in message content/topic
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Attitudinal Effects
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Examines media messages shape people's feelings about:
Products
Celebrities/Public Figures
Ideas
Trends
Easier to shape new opinions than to change existing opinions
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Behavioral Effects
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Examines how media messages affect our actions and behaviors such as:
Purchasing a new product
Following new fashions
Voting for a candidate
Difficult to achieve because people are often reluctant to change their behaviors
Ex:
TRUTH Anti-smoking Ads vs. Study Results
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Psychological Effects
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Examines the feelings generated by media content
Arousal is a major psychological effect of media content.
Especially in violent or erotic content
Increased heart rate, adrenaline, or sexual response
Mean World Syndrome:
Perception that the world is more dangerous than it really …
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Other Types of Media Effects
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Medium Effects
Ownership Effects
Active Audience Effects
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Active Audience Effects
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Divide audiences based on:
Geographics (i.e. where people live)
Demographics (e.g. age, education, income, race, & sex)
Psychographics (e.g. lifestyle choices & product use)
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Ownership Effects
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Media Owners decide which ideas will be produced and distributed.
Reinforces the ruling class (Habermas, 1984).
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Medium Effects
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The medium is the message" (McLuhan, 1964).
Ex: TV's emotional appeals - visual & audio
Surround sound Enhanced Experience
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Media's 3 Major Social Functions (Harold Lasswell (1948)
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Surveillance of the Environment
Correlation of Societal Elements
Cultural Transmission between Generations
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Surveillance of the Environment
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Media help open our eyes to the world around us
Status Conferral - media coverage of an individual gives him/her more public attention
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Correlation of Societal Elements
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Gives structure to the news through selecting, evaluating, and interpreting events
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Cultural Transmission between Generations
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Media as a form of socialization
Often through entertainment
Shares values, social norms, and knowledge
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Theories of Mass Communication Effects
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Agenda-Setting
Uses & Gratifications
Social Learning
Symbolic Interactionism
Spiral of Silence
Media Logic
Cultivation Analysis
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Agenda-Setting
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The media does not tell the public what to think, but does tell them what to think about.
Media coverage sets public discourse.
Examples:
Popular Issues in Political Elections
Islamic Terrorism
Donald Trump v. GOP candidates
High-profile court cases (e.g. Casey Anthony)
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Uses & Gratifications
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Examines the reasons why audiences consume mass media (e.g. the wants and needs) and if those reasons are fulfilled.
Audiences are viewed as active and logical consumers, NOT passive or mindless consumers.
Conscious of their media consumption choices
Gives the audience some agency
…
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Social Learning
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Claims individuals learn through observation of others' behaviors.
Learning through social interaction
Observe the pros and cons of behaviors
Social Norms
Extract key information
Integrate observations to create rules
Regulate our own behavior by practicing these rules
How is …
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Symbolic Interactionism
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Claims individuals produce meaning through interaction based on socially agreed-upon symbols.
Learning through social interaction
How we develop meaning
What are some examples?
Reality v. Perception of Reality:
"If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences"…
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Spiral of Silence
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Claims that people want to view themselves as having a majority opinion.
If opinion is perceived to be in the minority, people tend to remain silent.
Maintains social approval
Often makes the minority opinion seem less popular than it really is
This leads to a "death spiral" of di…
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Media Logic
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Claims the forms used through mass media in presenting the world become the forms we use to perceive the world
Across various types of content
Use format cues to understand the media programming
Media defines dominant cultural forms
Become the lens through which we view our everyday…
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Cultivation Analysis
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Claims that watching high amounts of television changes the way an individual views the world around them
More TV consumption ≠ reality of the world
Very deceptive
Mean World Syndrome
Modern Mass Comm. scholars are applying this view to other mediums as well.
Ex:
Objectification…
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Benefits of Social Research
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Understand human behavior
Improve overall quality of life
Why is social research often difficult?
People are different and public opinion is ever-changing
Always outliers
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4 Goals of Social Science Research
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Describe
Explain
Predict
Control
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Solomon Asch Experiment (1951)
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Investigated how social pressure from a group can cause a person to conform
1 actual participant and multiple confederates
Asked to identify the lines which had identical lengths
Confederates would purposefully give wrong answers on occasion
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The Milgram Experiment (1961)
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Studied the willingness of participants to obey authority in situations of stress and harm
Every time the "student" gave a wrong answer, the "teacher" was instructed to shock them.
The shocks increased in voltage for each wrong answer.
No one was ever shocked.
Student and teacher we…
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The Doll Test (1939)
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Investigated racial perceptions and the effects of school segregation on children
Presented a Black doll and a White doll to schoolchildren
Asked which doll was the pretty, smart, nice, happy, and clean doll
Asked which doll was the ugly, dumb, mean, sad, and dirty doll
The findings f…
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The Horns Effect
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same as halo effect, but in a negative direction
Views of Germans after WWII
Views of Muslims after 9/11
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The Halo Effect (1920)
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Investigated confirmation biases based on a few (and often trivial) attributes
Effects of attractiveness (e.g. looks, education, branding, gender, culture, nationality, and race) on one's views of another
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The Bystander Effect (1968)
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Studied the likelihood of people helping an individual when others are present
Person in distress and in need of help (often lying down, appearing unconscious)
Found that people are more likely to stop and help the person in distress IF others are trying to help
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The Tearoom Trade (1970)
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Humphreys investigated stigma & sexual acts in men's public restrooms.
Wanted to better understand the backgrounds of the men who participated in these encounters
Heavily criticized for methodological and ethical purposes.
Many scholars view this study as unethical and harmful because:…
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5 Comm. Departments at UA
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1) Advertising
What does the customer/audience/consumer want?
2) Journalism
What stories do people read?
3) Public Relations
What does the public think about any given individual, group, or organization?
4) Telecommunication & Film
What shows or films are popular?
5) Communicati…
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Mass Comm. Research
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Emerged over the last half century
Resulted from the increased popularity of mass media
Draws upon many concepts and methods from the humanities and the social sciences
Examines the ever-changing relationship between mass media and society
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Primary Research
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Information gathered through interaction with other people.
Data is collected through meetings, one-on-one interviews, focus groups, and surveys.
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Quantitative
Observation
Experiments
Content Analyses
Surveys
Questionnaires
Interviews
Qualita…
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Secondary Research
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Information gathered through literature, publications, broadcast media, and other non-human sources.
Generally much easier to gather than primary data.
Less time consuming
Less Expensive
Using data that other researchers have already collected
Internal Information
Trade/Industry …
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Two Types of Research
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Primary, and Secondary
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Two Types of Research Designs
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Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research
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Qualitative Research
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Seeks in-depth, open-ended responses, NOT simple "yes" or "no" answers.
The researcher tries to get people to share their thoughts and opinions on a topic.
Often takes longer to collect than quantitative data
Typically does not have large sample sizes
Exploratory in nature
Elicits in…
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Quantitative Research
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Seeks structured responses that can be summarized in numbers, like percentages, averages or other statistics.
Often uses "yes" and "no" answers
Often includes larger samples of the population
Formal, objective, and systematic in nature
Translate responses to numerical form (i.e. codi…
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Projective Techniques
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Use of stimuli to allow participants to provide subjective beliefs onto other people or objects.
Word association
Construction
Completion
Brand obituaries
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2 Types of Interviews
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In-Depth Interviews
One-on-One
Reduces response influences from other interviewees
Dyadic (or Joint) Interviews
More than 1 interviewee at a time
More intimate than focus groups
Ex:
User/non-user
Male/female
For/against
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Focus Groups
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8-12 participants
Often randomly recruited
Incentives for participation
Detailed & structured agenda
General to specific
Open-ended questions
Moderator
Comfortable & convenient setting
Often filmed and/or audio recorded
Ex:
Severe Weather Focus Groups
Problems/Challenges with…
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Observations
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Can be qualitative (i.e. casual) or quantitative
Ethnography - the scientific first-hand observations of individuals, groups, and/or cultures
Experiencing the consumers' (or research subjects') life first hand
Ex:
White Nationalists (Hughey, 2012)
Pro-Life Clinics (Kelly, 2009)
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Content Analyses
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Can be qualitative of quantitative
Study of media coverage of a topic or issue:
Print and broadcast news stories (via transcripts)
Opinion columns, editorials and letters to editor
Visual images (pictures or cartoons)
Mentions on Web sites or blogs
Ex:
Ethan's research for the De…
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Experiments
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Can be formative or evaluative
Structured situations to test one product against another
Independent v. Dependent Variables
Pre-testing & Post-testing
Experimental Group
Control Group
Ex:
Athletes' image repair & race (Brown, 2015)
Fictional news stories & athletes
Evaluated r…
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Surveys
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Survey Types:
Personal Interview
Telephone
Mail
Location Intercept (e.g. Shopping Malls)
Online
Survey Sample Types:
Random
Quota
Convenience ("Snowball")
Common Issues for Surveys:
Accessibility
Cooperation
Generalizability to Larger Population
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Surveys Questionarres
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Especially important to get demographic information for surveys
Age, Education Level, Race, Sex, etc.
Why is this information important?
Likert Scales
Approach to rating responses from high to low
Most common in surveys
Surveys are most often quantitative
Draws conclusions abou…
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Popular Culture
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aka "Pop" culture, includes attitudes, ideas, imagery, perspectives, etc. that forms the mainstream culture of a society.
Heavy focus on Western culture
Most often generated through mass media consumption
Most often is geared toward younger generations
Originally, the term came abo…
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Most common Pop Culture categories
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Entertainment (i.e. movies, music, etc.)
Sports
News (i.e. public figures, celebrities, etc.)
Politics
Fashion
Technology
Linguistics (e.g. slang)
Entertainment has the most influence on shaping a society's pop culture.
Pop culture is not confined.
Global influences of pop cul…
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Technology/Luddites
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In the early 1800s, many people (mostly textile artisans) in England realized that their world was changing because of new technologies from the Industrial Revolution (i.e. textile machines)
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Called themselves "Luddites"
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Went around England burning and destroying textile mills (1811-1812).
This was during the Revolutionary War.
In 1813, many Luddites were caught and hanged
Many more were sent to Australia (then a penal colony)
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Neil Postman-Does pop culture make us smarter?
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Amusing Ourselves to Death (1985)
Primarily focused on Television
Claimed TV turns our brains into mush (Zombify)
Decrease in critical-thinking
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Steven Johnson-Does pop culture make us smarter?
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Everything Bad Is Good for You (2005)
Broadened scope to other mediums
Claimed entertainment has become more complex
Increase in critical-thinking
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The Sleeper Effect (or Curve)
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notion that there are delayed (and positive) effects of mass media on consumers. (Pop Culture > Traditional Culture)
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America's Mass Media Consumption
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#1 Form of Entertainment = Music
Roughly 230 million Americans saw at least one movie in theaters last year.
Roughly 155 million Americans play video games weekly.
4 out of 5 households own a gaming device
The average social media user, spends 2 hours per day on social media sites.
…
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Top 5 Uses of the Internet:
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Email (92%)
Search Engine (89%)
Maps/Directions (86%)
Hobbies/Interests (83%)
Research a Product (81%)
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Pornography Stats for Internet
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Generates $10-12 billion per year
One of the few professions in which, on average, women earn more than men:
Females = $50,000 per year
Males = $30,000 per year
Earn between $150-$1,500 per scene
Gay & Lesbian scenes pay more
On average, $500 more per scene
Over 40 million Amer…
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1984 (George Orwell, 1949)
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Government Surveillance & Strict Control
"Big Brother"
Public Manipulation
Oppression of the Masses
Orwell feared those who would ban books.
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Brave New World (Aldous Huxley, 1932)
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No need for a "Big Brother"
People accept their Oppression
Addicted to materialistic things & technologies
Huxley feared no one would want to read them.
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The First Amendment
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"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances."
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5 Main Freedoms
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Press
Speech
Religion
Assembly
Petition
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Roots of Free Speech in US In the Colonial days
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British government had to approve of the colonial newspapers published
"Published by Authority" at top of each edition
Punished any publishing without that approval
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Roots of Free Speech in US Revolutionary War ends in 1783
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Bill of Rights were ratified in 1791
First 10 Amendments to the U.S. Constitution
Alien and Sedition Acts passed in 1798
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Alien and Sedition Acts
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laws that punished anyone who published "false, scandalous, or malicious writings against the government of the United States"
Made it a crime to criticize the U.S. government
Large monetary fines, jail time, or deportation
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Core Political Speech
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Expressive & Functional in a Republic
Ex: political rallies, protests, public debates, etc.
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Commercial Speech
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Economic (i.e. given to make profit)
Ex: advertising, marketing, sales pitches, etc.
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Symbolic Speech
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Often Nonverbal forms of communication
Ex: public rhetoric, flag burning, body language, etc.
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Why Protect Speech/Press?
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Social Value
Promotes democracy
Facilitates peaceful change
Acts as a check on government
Serves in search for truth
Individual Value
Self-fulfillment
Self-realization
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Speech can be limited/restricted if..
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Incites violence
Sparks rioting
What about violent video games?
Obscene
Graphic imagery
Child pornography
Time, Place, & Manner Restrictions
Content neutral
Narrow scope
Serve government interests
Have alternative channels of communication
Ex: Free Speech Zones
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Free Speech Post-9/11
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USA PATRIOT Act
"Uniting & Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism"
Signed on October 26, 2001
Nearly 90% of congressional support
Increased wire-tapping & domestic surveillance
Most objections came under the 4th Amendment
Un…
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2 Legal Issues Affecting Media
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Mainly Affects Journalists & Larger Scope of Affects
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Larger Scope of Affects
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Obscenity
Government Regulatory Bodies
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC)
Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
Copyright and Trademarks
Regulating Fairness
Equal Time Provision
Fairness Doctrine
Net Neutrality
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Mainly Affects Journalists
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Libel and Slander
Privilege
Actual Malice
Privacy
Intrusion
Embarrassment
False Light
Misappropriation
Prior Restraint
Shield Laws
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4 Legal Actions affecting journalists
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Defamation, Libel, Slander, Privilege, Actual Malice
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Libel
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is a written statement of defamation.
Defamation, identification, & publication
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Slander
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is an oral statement of defamation.
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Privilege
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a legal defense against libel
Statements made in courts, gov. meetings, or gov. documents cannot be used for a libel lawsuit
Protects journalists covering legal hearings
Give a fair & accurate report of any testimony without fear of being sued
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Actual Malice
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a reckless disregard for the truth or publishing falsified claims/facts.
All about intent
Actual Malice ≠ Negligence
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4 Types of Privacy Invasions:
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Intrusion,Embarrassment,False Light,Misappropriation
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Misappropriation
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using one's name or image for commercial purposes without their consent
Ex: Paparazzi selling pictures of celebrities
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False Light
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similar to libel, but often invades one's privacy
Publish untrue statements altering one's public image beyond their control.
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Embarrassment
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publishing humiliating stories of another's private life
Ex: 1961 case in Alabama
County Fair Fun House
Published photo of woman's exposed underwear
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Intrusion
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physical trespassing
One's personal space and/or property
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Prior Restraint
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judicial order preventing a media organization from publishing a certain story or image
Near v. Minnesota (1931)
The Saturday Press = Anti-Semitic newspaper
The Pentagon Papers (1971)
Extensive reports on administrative decisions regarding the Vietnam War
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Shield Laws
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laws that protect journalists from having to testify in court about their stories and sources
Federal Shield Law of 2009
Only covers professional, paid journalists
NOT citizen journalists, student journalists, and/or bloggers (Josh Wolf)
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Obscenity
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primarily refers to legally prohibiting sexually explicit materials
Difficult to define "obscene" materials
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Roth v. United States (1957)
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Samuel Roth sold sexually explicit materials (i.e. books, photos, magazines, etc.)
Convicted of mailing obscenities through the U.S. Postal Service
Supreme Court upheld the conviction
Set standards for determining what is obscene
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Miller v. California (1973)
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Refined the standards for determining what is obscene
Held that materials with "literary, artistic, political, or scientific value" cannot be banned.
Pamphlets on safe-sex, birth control, etc.
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Steubenville Rape Case
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Steubenville High School Rape
Steubenville, Ohio (August 11, 2012)
High school girl
Incapacitated by alcohol
Vomited & Lost Consciousness
Publicly and repeatedly sexually assaulted
Two 16 year-olds
Dozens of observers/bystanders
Several filmed, photographed, and documented on soc…
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Government Regulatory Bodies
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Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC)
Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
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Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
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Promotes consumer protection, and attempts to prevent monopolies and unethical business practices
Minimizes deceptive advertising
Advertising practices that are likely to mislead consumers
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Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC)
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Annual reports, timely disclosure, & insider trading
Expanded regulations for all U.S. public company boards, management, and public accounting firms
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Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
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Regulates interstate communications
(e.g. radio, television, wire, satellite, cable, etc.)
Competition, the media, public safety, and homeland security
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Copyright laws
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prevent others from appropriating media products from its creators
Recognizes the owner's rights
Duration: Owner's life PLUS 70 years
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Trademarks
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are symbols or words which are legally registered by use as representing a company or product.
Company Logos & Imagery
More organizational focus than individual focus
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Regulating Fairness
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Net Neutrality
Fairness Doctrine
equal Time Provision
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Net Neutrality
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Require Internet service providers to give equal access to all online content providers
Ex: Company could provide its own online video services and slow down access to YouTube
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Fairness Doctrine
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Require TV stations to "afford reasonable opportunity for the discussion of conflicting views on issues of public importance."
If covering issues of racism, the KKK would get equal time to give its point of view.
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Equal Time Provision
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FCC policy
Require broadcast stations to allow equal access of time available to all candidates running for public office
Designed to prevent political biases
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PRSA's Statement of Professional Values
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Public Relations Society of America (PRSA)
Advocacy
Serve public interest; responsible advocates; more informed public
Honesty
High standards of accuracy and truth
Expertise
Use specialized knowledge/experience; advancing the profession
Independence
Provide objective counsel for r…
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Morals
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individual's code of behavior based on religious or philosophical principles
Define right and wrong
Can be rational or irrational
Often very subjective
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Ethics
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rational way of deciding what is good for individuals or society
Provides a way to decide which moral principles are correct or more appropriate
Not a clear-cut right or wrong answer
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Golden Mean (Aristotle)
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Happiness is achieved when there is a balance "between excess and defect."
To behave ethically, individuals must:
Know what they are doing
Select their action with moral reason
Act out of good character
Ex: Having courage
(balance between cowardice/inaction & recklessness)
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Categorical Imperative (Immanuel Kant)
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Claims we should act in a manner in which we would want everyone else to act.
A.K.A. Principle of Universality or The Golden Rule
Concerned with the act NOT the outcome of the act
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Principle of Utility (John Stuart Mill)
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"The good of the many outweighs the good of the few, or the one."
Claims ethical behavior comes from actions that provide the greatest good for the greatest number of people
Ex: Sacrificing oneself for others
Christ's crucifixion
Mahatma Gandhi's fasts/hunger strikes
Bruce Willis in …
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Veil of Ignorance (John Rawls)
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Stems from Mill's Principle of Utility
Claims justice comes from making decisions without considering the social status of people involved AND our personal social status
Wealth, Race, Sex, Age, Education Status, etc.
In this view, Everyone is Equal
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The Hutchins Commission
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Commission on Social Responsibility Ethics
(1947) Growing concerns about ethical press behavior
Chaired by Robert M. Hutchins (educational scholar)
Commission founded by Henry Luce (Time magazine)
Concluded the 1st Amendment does not guarantee protection of the public's free speech …
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5 Requirements for a Responsible Press
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The media should:
Provide truthful, comprehensive, and intelligent news in a context that gives them meaning
Serve as a forum for the exchange of comment and criticism (i.e. present full range of thought/criticism)
Project a representative picture of the constituent groups within socie…
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Bok's Model for Ethical Decision-Making
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Sissela Bok (modern philosopher & ethicist)
3 Step Model in analyzing an Ethical Situation:
1) Consult Your Conscience
How do you feel about the action?
What does your conscience tell you is right?
2) Seek Alternatives
Is there an alternative way to achieve the same goal without …
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Ethical Issues reporters face daily
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Truthfulness
Conflicts of Interest
Sensationalism
Authenticity & Photographic Appropriateness
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Fabrication
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the action or process of manufacturing or inventing something.
In other words, lying.
Ex: NBC News Anchor, Brian Williams
False accounts of his 2003 coverage in the Iraq War
Reporters lying about who they are
Damages individual and news source's credibility
Ex: Jose Vargas
Former…
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Truthfulness
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Going undercover for factual stories on people who are breaking the law or are abusing public trust.
Ex: 1990 Arizona Senator Jan Brewer
Proposed bill requiring labels for sexually explicit records
Selling these records to minors would result in jail time
David Koen goes undercover. …
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Conflicts of Interest
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Conflict with values of balance and fairness
Corporate Conflicts of Interest
Beyond just suppressing stories
Actively promoting company interests
Giving more coverage (or more favorable coverage) to:
Companies/groups in which one agrees with or favors
Friends and close colleagues
…
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Sensationalism
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News coverage that panders to audiences with lurid and highly emotional accounts of crime, sex, violence, or celebrity missteps
Chris Matthews' "Water Cooler Principle"
Defense of sensationalistic news coverage
Can you think of any sensationalistic stories?
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Tabloidization
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A.K.A. "Tabloid Laundering"
When respectable media report on what the tabloids are reporting
A way of covering sensationalistic stories that they might otherwise not cover
Michael Jackson's death
Tiger Woods' infidelity
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Authenticity & Photographic Appropriateness
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Sensitive events/issues
Photo manipulation of images/videos
Adobe Photoshop
Video Editing
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Ombudsman
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A.K.A. "reader's representative" or "audience advocate"
A representative of a publication's readers who takes the point of view of their audience
Connects audience views with news outlets
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Society of Professional Journalists:
3 Main Principles of Ethics:
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Seek truth and report it as fully as possible
Act independently
Minimize harm
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Major Ethical Issues in Advertising
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Major area of concern during WWII (Why?)
Truthfulness
How important is it that advertisements are truthful?
Keeping Public Trust
Financial Profitability
Taste
Is it appropriate for ads to gain attention by shocking its audiences?
Where is the line drawn?
Media Control
Do advertis…
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Julian /assange
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"James bond villian" austrialian born hacker and founder of wikileaks.
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Sergey Brin
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Google Co founder
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MC 101: Internet