BIOL 240W: EXAM 2
147 Cards in this Set
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total solute concentration (milliosmoles per liter)
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osmolarity
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organism does not actively adjust internal osmolarity to environment
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osmoconformer
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whos an osmoconformer
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most marine invertebrates, hagfish
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organism that controls the internal osmolarity
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osmoregulator
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whos an osmoregulator
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marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats
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organism that can only tolerate a limited range of changes in external osmolarity
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stenohaline
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organism that can tolerate large fluctuations in external osmolarity
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euryhalineh
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ow to osmoregulators survive in sea water?
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drink large amounts of water, gills actively transport cl out, Na follows; kidneys excrete excess ions with small amounts of water
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sharks and rays have high amounts of this in their tissues, and this special molecule to protect proteins from damage
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urea
trimethylamine oxide (TMAO)
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how do freshwater fish survive
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excrete large amounts of urin, gills actively transport Cl into cells and Na follows
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an ametabolic state of life in response to adverse environmental conditions
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cryptobiosis
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extreme dessication state of life; this replaces water associated with proteins and membranes
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anhydrobiosis
suger (trehalose)
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how land animals lose water
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gas exchange surfaces
urine and feces
across skin
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how land animals get water without eating
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through cellular respiration
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layers of specialized cells that regulate solute movement
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transport epithelia
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how marine birds handle salt
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nasal salt glands that remove salt load
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this maximizes salt removal from blood
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countercurrent exchange
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formed after breakdown the products of proteins and nucleic acids
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ammonia
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very soluble, easily crosses membranes and diffuses into water, used in animals with lots of access to water
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ammonia
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soluble with low toxicity, produced by the liver, combines ammonia with CO2, excreted by the kidney
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urea
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nontoxic and insoluble, semi-solid paste (guano)
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uric acid
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this is the product of purine breakdown that is converted to allantoin
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uric acid
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deposits of this in joints causes painful inflammation
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uric acid
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a deficiency in this is associated with multiple sclerosis
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uric acid
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primary function of the kidney
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regulate extracellular fluid (plasma and interstitial fluid)
volume of blood plasma
concentration of waste products in blood
concentration of electrolytes
pH of plasma
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paired tubes from kidney to bladder
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ureter
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storage of urine
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urinary bladder
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tube to release urine to outside
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urethra
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two regions of kidney
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renal cortex and renal medulla
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outer region of kidney
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renal cortex
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inner region of kidney
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renal medulla
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functional unit of kidney that consists of a single long tubule and associated capillaries
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nephron
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two types of nephrons
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corical nephron and juxtamedullary nephron
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majority of nephrons are this type
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cortical nephrons
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nephrons with a reduced loop of henle and mainly confined to renal cortex
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cortical nephrons
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neprons with well developed loops that descend deep into the renal medulla; allow mammals to produce urine hyperosmotic to body fluids
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juxtamedullary nephrons
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path of filtrate in nephron
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bowman's capsule, proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, collecting duct, calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra
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supplies blood as offshoot of renal artery in kidney
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afferent arteriole
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ball of capillaries and site of filtration in kidney; has an artery into capillary bed and an artery out of capillary bed
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glomerulus
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blood vessel from glomerulus to second capillary bed of kidney
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efferent arteriole
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blood vessel in kidney that surrounds proximal and distal tubules
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peritubular capillaries
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capillaries surrounding loop of Henle
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vasa recta
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amount of filtrate produced
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glomerulus filtration rate
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right after filtration, where most of the filtrates are reabsorbed
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proximal tubule
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where water flows out of the blood, where filtrate osmolarity begins to raise above blood
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descending loop of henle
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not permeable to water, salt diffuses out of blood here
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ascending loop of henle
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in the ascending loop, salt diffuses from here and is pumped from here
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thin segment at bottom
thick segment at top
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this part of kidney regulates K+ and NaCl in body fluids
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distal tubule
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secretes K and H into filtrate, reabsorbs NaCl and HCO3 from filtrate
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distal tubule
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carries filtrate through medulla to renal pelvis
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collecting duct
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part of kidney where water leaves, urine becomes concentrated, some urea diffuses out because of high concentration
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collecting duct
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bird kidneys
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short loops, urine not as hyperosmotic, uric acid excreted as paste
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reptile kidney
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only cortical nephrons, urine is isoosmotic or hypoosmotic, excrete nitrogenous waste as uric acid
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freshwater fish and amphibian kidneys
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body hyperosmotic, lots of dilute urine, large number of nephrons, high GFR, reabsorb salts from filtrate by active transport
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amphibians on land conserve water how
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reabsorb water across urinary bladder
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marine fish kidneys
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body fluid hypoosmotic, fewer and smaller nephrons, no distal tubule, small glomeruli, low filtration rates, little urine produced, main function is to rid body of divalent ions
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ADH produced where, stored where, released where
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hypothalamus produces, stored and released from posterior pituitary
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osmoreceptors monitor osmolarity of blood, and regulate release of ADH from posterior pituitary
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hypothalamus of brain
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when blood osmolarity rises,
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ADH release increases from hypothalamus, ADH targets distal tubule and collecting duct, increases the permeability of tubule epithelium to water to make urine more concentrated, lower in volume, lowing blood osmolarity
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how ADH acts on epithelium
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binds to receptors on collecting duct, triggers insertion of more aquaporin channels, more water reabsorbed, less urine
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drink lots of water
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less ADH secreted, decrease permeability of distal tubule, more water pissed out
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disorder that results in abnormal volume of urine output and often abnormal thirst and fluid intake, low urine osmolarity
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diabetes insipidus
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known causes of diabetes insipidus
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lack of ADH production
mutations in ADH receptors
mutations in aquaporin genes that result in nonfunctioning channels
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two ways body regulates blood homeostatis
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ADH and RAAS (renin-angiotensin aldosterone system)
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blood pressure or volume drops and this happens
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renin released by JGA, converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin II
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specialized group of cells near afferent arteriole that monitor blood pressure and volume
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juxtaglomerular apparatus JGA
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effects of angiotensin II
(increases blood pressure and volume)
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constricts arterioles (decreased blood flow to capillaries)
stimulates adrenal glands to release aldosterone
increase thirst sensation and desire for salt
increase ADH secretion
acts on proximal tubules to increase Na reabsorption
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aldosterone acts on distal tubule how
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aldosterone released by adrenal glands after stimulation from angiotensin II, makes distal tubule reabsorb more Na and water, increasing blood pressure and volume
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what does ACE do
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converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II
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how to block hypertension
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inhibit ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme), diuretics (increase urine output by blocking Na reabsorption, block aldosterone), ARBs (angiotensin receptor blockers)-block receptors that get signal from ang II
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difference in two systems of blood homeostasis
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ADH responds only to osmolarity differences while RAAS responds to blood volume loss even if no change in osmolarity (Injuries)
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keeps RAAS in check
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ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)
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how ANP works to keep RAAS in check
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ANP opposes RAAS, ANP released from muscle cells in atria of heart in response to increased sodium concentration and stretch receptors in atria due to high bp or volume
inhibits release of renin, inhibits reabsorption of NaCl by distal tubule and collecting duct, reduces aldosterone rele…
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system that acts in response to stress, dehydration, low blood glucose levels
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endocrine system
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ductless, secrete chemical messengers directly into extracellular fluid
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endocrine glands
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specialized nerve cells that secrete hormones
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neurosecretory cells
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chemical that is a neurotransmitter and hormone
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epinephrine - fight or flight hormone, and neurotransmitter
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4 major categories of secreted signaling molecules that trigger response by binding to receptors
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hormones, local regulators, neurotransmitters and neurohormones, and pheromones
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secreted signaling molecules that trigger response by binding to receptors - endocrine signaling
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hormones
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secreted signaling molecules that trigger response by binding to receptors - paracrine and autocrine signaling
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local regulators
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secreted signaling molecules that trigger response by binding to receptors - synaptic and neuroendocrine signaling
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neurotransmitters and neurohormones
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secreted signaling molecules that trigger response by binding to receptors - signals released into external environment, signals between different individuals
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pheromones
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why are hormones slow
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travel in the blood
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three major hormone groups
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polypeptides (proteins and peptides)
amines (synthesized from amino acids)
steriods (lipids with four fused carbon rings, derived from cholesterol)
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hormone solubility
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polypeptides and many amines soluble in water
steriods and some amines are lipid soluble
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faster than hormones, send messages between neighboring cells
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paracrine and autocrine
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local regulator where target cell is near secreting cell
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paracrine
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local regulator where secreted molecule works on secreting cell
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autocrine
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cytokines (immune system responses), growth factors, NO, and prostaglandins are all examples of these
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paracrine and autocrine
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how NO works with blood flow
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if pO2 falls in blood, vessel walls synthesize and release NO, which activates an enzyme to relax smooth muscles, resulting in vasodilation, improving blood flow
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modified fatty acid local regulator, derived from arachidonic acid by cyclooxygenase pathway cox-1,2,3
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prostaglandins
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prostaglandins in the immune system
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promotes aspects of inflammatory response, fever, and intensity of sensation of pain
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prostaglandins in the reproductive system
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gamete transport and labor
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prostaglandins in the respiratory system
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some cause dilation and some constriction
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prostaglandins in digestive system
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inhibit gastric secretions and maintain lining of stomach
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prostaglandins in circulatory system
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regulate aggregation of platelets during clotting
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prostaglandins in urinary system
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increased renal blood flow and increased secretion of urine
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aspirin and ibuprofen are these, that inhibit synthesis of prostaglandins, and are nonselective inhibitors of cyclooxygenase
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nsaids (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs)
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constitutive enzyme found in most cells, inhibition increases chance of gastric ulceration
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cox 1
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indubile enzyme found primarily in sites of inflammation, inhibition reduces inflammation and pain
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cox 2
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why hard to inhibit either cox 1 or 2, not both
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only vary by a single amino acid
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neurosecretory cells in brain that secrete molecules into circulatory system, ex ADH
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neurohormones
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water soluble hormones have receptors where
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in plasma membrane
ex epinephrine
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lipid soluble hormones have receptors where
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intracellular
ex estradiol
primarily for gene expression
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regulates metabolism in frogs, humans, other vertebrates; triggers metamorphosis of tadpole to adult frog
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thyroxine
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epinephrine has 3 effects
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intestinal blood vessel - constriction
skeletal blood vessel - dilates
liver cells - increase glucose release
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insulin and glucagon produced here
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pancreas
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clusters of endocrine cells scattered in pancreas
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islets of langerhans
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these cells make glucagon
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alpha cells
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these cells make insulin
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beta cells
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difference in pancreas exocrine and endocrine
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exocrine is digestion, endocrine is secreting into cell fluid
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what does insulin do
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stimulates cells to take up glucose; stimulates fat cells to uptake blood lipids and convert to triglycerides
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what does glucagon do
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increase glycogen hydrolysis, conversion of amino acids and glycerol to glucose
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deficiency of insulin or decreased response to insulin by target cells
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diabetes mellitus
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in diabetes mellitus, cells cannot uptake glucose so this is used instead for energy
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fat; results in formation of acidic metabolites, lowers blood pH
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what about glucose in diabetes mellitus
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too much glucose in blood for kidneys to filter, so there is glucose in the urine
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insulin dependent form of diabetes mellitus
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type 1; autoimmune disorder resulting in the destruction of beta cells of pancreas (they produce the insulin)
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type of diabetes mellitus, insulin produced but body doesnt respond
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type 2; overweight, treatment is exercise, diet and oral medications
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treatment for type 1 diabetes mellitus
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replacement of insulin through injection
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integrates endocrine and nervous system in vertebrates
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hypothalamus
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ecdysone + high levels of JH
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molting
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ecdyson + low levels or no JH
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metamorphosis
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part of pituitary: embryological extension of hypothalamus, stores and secretes ADH, oxytocin
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posterior pituitary
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peptide hormone regulated by nervous system, deals with nursing and birth
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oxytocin
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part of pituitary: endocrine cells synthesize and secrete at least 6 hormones
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anterior pituitary
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special circulation in anterior pituitary?
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2 capillary beds without going back to the heart
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hypothalamus hormones only do two things
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releasing hormone or inhibiting hormone
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hormones released by hypothalamus that regulate other endocrine cells or glands
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tropic
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hormones released by hypothalamus that regulate nonendocrine tissues
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nontropic
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nontropic hormone that stimulates mammary gland growth and milk synthesis, regulates fat metabolism in birds, delays metamorphosis in amphibians
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prolactin
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nontropic hormone, deals with melanin deposition, appetite and sexual behavior
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MSH melanocyte stimulating hormone
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hormone released from anterior pituitary that has tropic and nontropic effects; deals with growth
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growth hormone
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hypersecretion of growth hormone in adults
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acromegaly
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hyposecretion of growth hormone in children
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pituitary dwarfism
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thyroid homeostatic functions
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maintain blood pressure, increase heart rate
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produces t3 and t4, from anterior pituitary
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thyroid
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lack of iodine in diet; weight gain, lethargy
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hypothyroidism
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graves disease; high bp, profuse sweating, high body temp, irritability
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hyperthyroidism
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parathyroid plays major rule in regulation of this
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calcium
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parathyroid hormone effects
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induces decomposition of bone matrix, stimulates reabsorption of Ca, stimulates activation of vit D, controlled by negative feedback
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antagonist to PTH
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calcitonin
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secretes catecholamines in response to stress
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adrenal medulla
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effects of caecholamines
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increased heart rate and volume, dilate lung bronchioles, contraction and dilation of smooth muscles
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secretes steriodal hormones in response to endocrine signals; two main types glucocorticoids and mineralocortacoids
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adrenal cortex
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glucocorticoid that promotes gluconeogenesis, antiinflammatory and immunosuppressive effects
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cortisol
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mass of tissue near center of brain; contains either light sensitive cells or has neuron connections with eye; synthesizes and secretes melatonin
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pineal gland
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endocrine disrupting chemical: agonist
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binds receptor for hormone and mimics effect
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BIOL 240W: EXAM 2.4