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PSYC 324: EXAM 1
nature
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refers to our biology (genes)
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nurture
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refers to the environments, both physical and social
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the active child
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children contribute to their own development, and their contributions increase as they grow older
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continuous development
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age-related changes occur GRADUALLY (e.g. a tree gradually grows bigger)
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discontinuous development
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age-related changes include occasional large shifts (caterpillar-cocoon-butterfly)
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mechanisms of developmental change
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the interaction of genes and environment determines both what changes occur and when those changes occur
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Sociocultural context
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refers to the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child's environment
development is affected by ethnicity, race and economic status
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Research & Children's Welfare
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improved understanding allows for education & practical application
*Early diagnosis > early treatment/prevention
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choosing a question-formulating hypothesis-testing hypothesis-drawing a conclusion
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What are the steps of the scientific method?
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structured interview
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a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions
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clinical interview
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a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides
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rating scale
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completion of a survey
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L-less control. many behaviors only occur occasionally in everyday environments. limited value for studying infrequent behaviors.
A-everyday settings
helps illuminate social interactions processes
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What are some limitations/advantages of naturalistic observation?
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structured observation
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involves presenting an identical situation to a number of children and recording each child's behavior, enabling direct comparisons of different children's behavior.
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L-Does not provide as much
information about children’s
subjective experiences.
Is not in the natural environment
A- ensures that all children's behaviors are observed in the same context.
allows controlled comparison in different situations
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What are some limitations/advantages of structured observation?
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L-reports may be biased in favor of interviewer
memory of interviewee may be inaccurate or incomplete
prediction of future may be inaccurate
A-can reveal subjective experience
structured interviews are inexpensive/in-depth
clinical interviews allow flexibility for following up unexpected comments
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What are some limitation/advantages of interviews?
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correlational design
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the primary goal is to determine how variables are related to one another
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experimental designs
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allow inferences about causes and effects
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A-Only way to compare many groups of interest (boys-girls, rich-poor, etc.)
Only way to establish relations among many variables of interest (IQ and achievement; popularity and happiness, etc.)
L-Third-variable problem
Direction-of-causation problem
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What are the limitations/advantages of correlational designs?
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A-Allows causal inferences because design rules out direction-of-causation and third-variable problems
Naturalistic experiments can demonstrate cause-effect connections in natural settings
L-Need for experimental control often leads to artificial experimental situations
Cannot be used to study many differences and variables of interest, such as age, sex, and temperament
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What are the limitations/advantages of experimental design?
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single case design
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in depth observation of one or a few children over a period of time
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cross-sectional design
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Children of different ages are compared on a behavior/characteristic over a short period of time
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longitudinal designs
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Used when the same children are studied twice or more over a substantial period of time
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age-history confound
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In longitudinal research, the co-occurrence of historical factors with changes in age.
(e.g. smoking, 911)
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cohort effects
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Characteristics shared by children growing up in a specific social and historical context.
(e.g. daycare)
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A-Yields useful data about differences among age groups
Quick and easy to administer
L-Uninformative about stability of individual differences over time
Uninformative about similarities and differences in individual children’s patterns of change
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What are the advantages and limitations of cross-sectional?
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A-Indicates the degree of stability of individual differences over long periods
Reveals individual children’s patterns of change over long periods
L-Difficult to keep all participants in study
Repeatedly testing children can threaten external validity of study
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What are the advantages/limitations of longitudinal?
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germinal
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From conception until the zygote becomes implanted in the uterine wall.
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Embryonic
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Major development occurs in all the organs and systems of the body
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Fetal
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Continued development of physical structures and rapid growth of the body
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Teratogens
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environmental agents that have the potential to cause harm during prenatal development
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Susceptibility
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Individuals and species differ in susceptibility to different teratogens
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Critical or Sensitive Periods
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Teratogen effects depend on the stage of development during which exposure occurs
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Access
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Accessibility of a teratogen to fetus or embryo influences extent of its damage
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Dose-Response Relationships
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Amount of exposure to teratogen influences its effects
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Teratogenic Response
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Teratogens do not show the same effects uniformly on prenatal development
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Interference with Specific Mechanisms
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Teratogens interfere with differentiation, migration, and other basic functions of cells.
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Developmental Delay and Sleeper Effects
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Some teratogens delay development temporarily, others may have “sleeper effects” and not show up until later
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Prepared Childbirth
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Practicing procedures during pregnancy and childbirth that are designed to minimize pain and reduce need for medication.
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Early |
Until contractions are regular and cervix begins to dilate (12-14 hours)
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Active
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regular contractions, continue dilating (1-6 hours)
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Transition
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strong contractions, dilate 8-10 cm. (0-3 hours)
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Second phase
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delivery of baby (0-3 hours)
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Third phase
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delivery of placenta (0-30 min.)
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infant mortality
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death during the first year of birth. U.S. 20th, a.a. x2, poverty
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low birth weight
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infants weighing less than 5.5 pounds
at or before 35 weeks
small for gestation age-when their birth weight is substantially less than the norm for their gestational age
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Developmental resilience
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refers to successful development in the face of multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards.
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Genotype
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the genetic material an individual inherits
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Phenotype |
the observable expression of the genotype, including body characteristics and behavior
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Environment
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includes every aspect of the individual, and his or her surroundings, other than genes
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Genes
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are sections of chromosomes that are the basic units of heredity for all living things
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chromosomes
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long, threadlike molecules made up of DNA (carry biochemical functions)
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dominant allele
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is the form of the gene that is expressed if present.
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recessive allele
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is not expressed if a dominant allele is present
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Norm of Reaction
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Refers to all the phenotypes that could theoretically result from a given genotype, in relation to all the environments in which it could survive and develop
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Passive links
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parents transmit traits through genes, the environments they provide, or both.
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Evocative links
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people react to the characteristics of the child’s genotype.
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Active links (niche-selection)
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children seek out environments compatible with their genotypes.
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Heritability
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A statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a given trait among individuals in a given population that is attributable to genetic differences among those individuals
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Secular trends
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are marked changes in physical development that have occurred over generations, resulting from environmental changes such as improvement in health and nutrition (e.g. puberty, especially among American girls)
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Failure-to-thrive (FTT)
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A condition in which infants become malnourished and fail to grow for no apparent medical reason.
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Adaptation
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The tendency to respond to the demands of the environment to meet one’s goals
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Organization |
The tendency to integrate particular observations into coherent knowledge
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Assimilation
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Interpreting information in terms of current ways of understanding things (schemes)
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Accommodation
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Modification in thinking (schemes) when old ways of thinking do not fit
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Organization |
Tendency for structures and processes to become systematic and coherent
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Equilibration
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Innate self-regulatory process that results in more organized schemes.
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Sensorimotor
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Infants know the world through their senses and through their actions. For example, they learn what dogs look like and what petting them feels like. (birth to 2 years)
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Preoperational
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Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. They also begin to be able to see the world from other people’s perspectives, not just from their own. (2-7)
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Concrete Operational
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Children become able to think logically, not just intuitively. They now can classify objects into coherent categories and understand that events are often influenced by multiple factors, not just one. (7-12)
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Formal Operational
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Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is. This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning. (12+)
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deferred imitation
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the repetition of other people’s behavior a substantial time after it occurred
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tertiary circular reactions
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avidly explore the potential uses to which objects can be put
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