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BIO 101: FINAL EXAM
Potential energy |
energy which results from position or configuration. An object may have the capacity for doing work as a result of its position
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What are catalysts |
any substance that increases the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed.
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What are enzymes |
Enzymes are naturally occurring catalysts responsible for many essential biochemical reactions.
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How do catalysts/enzymes work |
Enzymes have a complex three denominational surface to which particular reactants (called substrates of that enzyme) fit, like a hand in a glove. An enzyme and it's substrates bind together, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. The binding brings key atoms near each other and stresses key covalent bond. As a result, a chemical reaction occurs within the active site, forming the product. The product then diffuses away, freeing the enzyme to work again.
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what factor affect catalysts and enzyms |
competitive inhibitor, Noncompetitive inhibitor, repressor, activator
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Oxidation |
the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
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Reduction |
Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
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where do the light reactions occur in a plant cell |
Thylakoid Membrane
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What are the products of light reaction |
In the Presence of Sunlight, Carbon Dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
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What is Photosystem I |
absorbs photons of wavelength of 700 nm. It is responsible for providing high energy electrons with which to reduce NADP+ to produce NADPH to be used in the Calvin cycle.
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What is Photo system II |
When it absorbs light, one of its electrons is promoted to a higher energy. This energized electron then hops downward, through several other pigmented molecules, on to plastoquinone A, and finally over to plastoquinone B. When it gets enough electrons, this small quinone is released from the photosystem, and it delivers its electrons to the next link in the electron-transfer chain. Of course, this leaves the original chlorophyll without an electron. The upper half of the reaction center has the job of replacing this electron with a low-energy electron from water. The oxygen-evolving center strips an electron from water and passes it to a tyrosine amino acid, which then delivers it to the chlorophyll, making it ready to absorb another photon.
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What is Chorophyll |
an organic molecule that absorbs red and blue light but does not absorb green wavelengths
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Where does the Calvin cycle occur? |
stroma
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What are the products of the calvin cycle? |
glucose
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Do you need light to run the Calvin cycle? |
no
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What is the Electromagnetic Spectrum (light waves)? |
Light is composed of of packets of energy called photons. Some of the photons in light carry more energy than others light a form of electromagnetic energy is conveniently thoughts of as a wave the shorter the wavelength of light the greater the energy of its photons visible light represent only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum portions with wavelengths between about 400 and 740 nanometers
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What can we see in the Electromagnetic spectrum? |
visible light represent only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum portion of wavelengths between about 407 40
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Where does Glycolysis take place? |
cytoplasm |
What is ATP? |
the energy currency of life; a high-energy molecule found in every cell. Its job is to store and supply the cell with needed energy.
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What is NAD+ |
involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another
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What is NADH? |
used as a reducing agent to donate electrons
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What is FADH2? |
a redox cofactor that is created during the Krebs cycle and utilized during the last part of respiration, the electron transport chain.
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What are the products of glycolysis |
the net end products are two Pyruvate, two NADH, and two ATP
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Where do the products of glycolysis go? |
Krebs cycle
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What is Lactate fermentation? |
the pyruvic acid from glycolysis is reduced to lactic acid by NADH, which is oxidized to NAD+. This commonly occurs in muscle cells. Lactic acid fermentation allows glycolysis to continue by ensuring that NADH is returned to its oxidized state (NAD+).
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What is Alcohol fermentation |
the anaerobic pathway carried out by yeasts in which simple sugars are converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide. The process of alcohol fermentation allows yeasts to break down sugar in the absence of oxygen and results in byproducts that humans benefit from.
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What is the Krebb's cycle? |
the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, consuming oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and converting ADP to energy-rich ATP.
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What are the products of the Krebbs cycle? |
8 NADH
2 FADH2 - electron carrier
2 ATP (Used for cellular activities)
6 carbon dioxides (Exhaled out)
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Where do the products of the krebb's cycle go? |
Electron transport chain
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What is the Electron Transport Chain |
A collective term describing the series of membranes Associated electron carriers embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane it puts the electrons harvested from the oxidation of glucose to work driving proton pump channels
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What are the products of Electron transport chain |
6h2o+ 6c2o+32atp
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How does the Electron transport chain work? |
1) Electrons from the electron carriers (NADH & FADH2) are sent through a series of molecules to create 32 ATP
2) The electrons, once at the end of the chain, will attach to hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms to form water
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What is the final electron acceptor |
Oxygen,
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carbs |
During carbohydrate digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase.
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Fats |
Digestion of certain fats begins in the mouth, where short chain lipids are broken down into diglycerides by lingual lipase. Fat present in the small intestine stimulates the release of lipase from the pancreas, and bile from the liver, enabling the breakdown of fats into fatty acids.
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Proteins |
Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and the duodenum through the action of three main enzymes: pepsin, secreted by the stomach, and trypsin and chymotrypsin, secreted by the pancreas.
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What is Glycogen? |
a substance deposited in bodily tissues as a store of carbohydrates. It is a polysaccharide that forms glucose on hydrolysis.
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WHy do we need glycogen? |
provides the body with a readily available source of energy if blood glucose levels decrease.
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what are the parts of the digestive system? |
consists mainly of a long muscular tube, the digestive tract. This starts at the mouth, continues via the esophagus and stomach to the intestines, and ends at the anus. The system also relies on the pancreas, liver, and gall bladder to help digest food.
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What happened to food in the digestive system? |
Digestion begins in the mouth with chewing and ends in the small intestine. As food passes through the GI tract, it mixes with digestive juices, causing large molecules of food to break down into smaller molecules. The body then absorbs these smaller molecules through the walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream, which delivers them to the rest of the body. Waste products of digestion pass through the large intestine and out of the body as a solid matter called stool.
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what is bile? |
The liver produces a digestive juice called bile. The gallbladder stores bile between meals. When a person eats, the gallbladder squeezes bile through the bile ducts, which connect the gallbladder and liver to the small intestine. The bile mixes with the fat in food. The bile acids dissolve fat into the watery contents of the intestine, much like how detergents dissolve grease from a frying pan, so the intestinal and pancreatic enzymes can digest the fat molecules.
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what does bile do to fats? |
The bile mixes with the fat in food. The bile acids dissolve fat into the watery contents of the intestine, much like how detergents dissolve grease from a frying pan, so the intestinal and pancreatic enzymes can digest the fat molecules.
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Where are fats absorbed in the digestive tract |
Instead of being absorbed directly into capillary blood, chylomicrons are transported first into the lymphatic vessel that penetrates into each villus. Chylomicron-rich lymph then drains into the system lymphatic system, which rapidly flows into blood. Blood-borne chylomicrons are rapidly disassembled and their constitutent lipids utilized throughout the body.
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Sexual reproduction |
Sexual reproduction is a form of reproduction where two morphologically distinct types of specialized reproductive cells called gametes fuse together, involving a female's large ovum (or egg) and a male's smaller sperm. Each gamete contains half the number of chromosomes of normal cells.
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asexual reproduction |
a type of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only; it does not involve the fusion of gametes and almost never changes the number of chromosomes
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oviparity |
producing eggs that mature and hatch after being expelled from the body, as birds, most reptiles and fishes, and the monotremes.
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ovoviviviparity |
is a mode of reproduction in sharks (and other animals) in which embryos develop inside eggs that are retained within the mother's body until they are ready to hatch.
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viviparity |
(of an animal) bringing forth live young that have developed inside the body of the parent.
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spermatogenesis |
the process in which spermatozoa are produced from male primordial germ cells by way of mitosis and meiosis. The initial cells in this pathway are called spermatogonia, which yield primary spermatocytes by mitosis. The primary spermatocyte divides meiotically (Meiosis I) into two secondary spermatocytes; each secondary spermatocyte divides into two spermatids by Meiosis II. These develop into mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm cells.
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where does spermatogenesis occur? |
Spermatogenesis occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules , with stem cells at the periphery of the tube and the spermatozoa at the lumen of the tube. Immediately under the capsule of the tubule are diploid, undifferentiated cells.
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What hormones are responsible for the female cycle? where does this happen? |
luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone
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Are all the oocytes in a female used in a lifetime? |
no
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How many oocytes are actually ovulated? |
200-400
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Where does fertilizationn occur? |
occurs in the end of the fallopian tube away from the uterus (close to the ovary). The egg and the associated cumulus cells are ovulated (released) from an ovarian follicle and picked up by the fallopian tube. The tube pulls it inside where the sperm can find it.
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what happens to the egg (meiotic division) |
Oogonia (2n) 2 million are formed in a baby girl before birth!
Primary Oocytes (2n) - [Meiosis I] 23 pairs of homologues including 2Xs
Ovulation / meiosis: at the onset of puberty, FSH triggers a few primary oocytes to progress through meiosis every 28 days
Secondary Oocyte (n) - [Meiosis II] 23 chromosomes - one of which is an X
1 ovum (n) + 3 polar bodies (n) - the 3 polar bodies disintegrate. The 1 ovum gets all the resources (cytoplasm, mitochondria) and may get fertilized.
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What causes STDs? |
Bacterial STDs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Viral STDs include HIV, genital herpes, genital warts (HPV), and hepatitis B. Trichomoniasis is caused by a parasite.
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Are STDs treatable? |
Bacterial STDs like gonorrhea, chlamydia and syphilis, are relatively easy to cure with antibiotics if detected and treated early. Genital herpes, genital warts, Hepatitis B and HIV are viral infections that cannot be cured, but the symptoms can be treated and managed.
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Are STDs Curable? |
Bacterial STDs like gonorrhea, chlamydia and syphilis, are relatively easy to cure with antibiotics if detected and treated early. Genital herpes, genital warts, Hepatitis B and HIV are viral infections that cannot be cured, but the symptoms can be treated and managed.
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What is the Cell Theory? |
a scientific theory which describes the properties of cells. These cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction.
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What are the major components of a cell? |
Cell wall, chloroplast, Endoplasmic reticulum, golgi Apparatus, Lysome, Mitochondria, Nucleus, plasma membrane, Ribosome, vacuole
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What is diffusion? |
random movement of molecules but has a net direction toward regions of lower concentration in order to reach an equillibrium.
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What is ossmosis |
the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.
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What is active transport? |
the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy.
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What is DNA? |
deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.
the fundamental and distinctive characteristics or qualities of someone or something, especially when regarded as unchangeable.
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What is a Diploid? |
contain the complete set of necessary chromosomes, while haploid have only half the number of chromosomes found in the nucleus, 2n
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What is a Haploid? |
(of a cell or nucleus) having a single set of unpaired chromosomes. n
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What is Evolution? |
the gradual development of something, especially from a simple to a more complex form; the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth.
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Did we come from monkeys? |
no
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example of a flagellate |
Trypanosoma gambiense, Trichonympha, giaridia
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Example of an amoeba |
Entamoeba, Amoeba proteus,
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Example of a ciliate |
Paramecium, Stentor
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Example of a sporozoa |
Apicomplexa, coccidia, Plasmodium
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What is industrial melanism |
the prevalence of dark-colored varieties of animals (especially moths) in industrial areas where they are better camouflaged against predators than paler forms.
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give an example of industrial melanism |
peppered mothes
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ABO blood types |
co-dominant A&B
A-Has antigen A has antibody B
AB-Has both A and B antigen no antibodies universal recipient
B- Has B antigen has antibody A
O- Has no antigen has both antibodies A and B can only receive O blood group and is universal donor |