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COM 225: EXAM 2
What did Professor Turkle study? What is the point of this example?
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-Social Studies of Science and technology, she developed social robots and described us on the emerging of the “robotic moment”
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What is the point of Chapter 5? What is it about?
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listening and conflict. · How messages are received by people
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What is the breakdown for communication activities that students use?
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-55.4% daily communication is listening
-17.1% speaking
-16.1% reading
-11.4% writing
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How do the authors define listening?
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Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken nonverbal cues.
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What are the steps in listening?
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1. Attention= focus on certain cues and ignore others. We become distracted.
2. Interpretation= assigning meaning to what you hear. *Often we hear what we want to hear not what the other person is saying.
3. Evaluation= determine accuracy and usefullness of messages. Evidence to back up claims
4. Respond= to what the other person is saying (e.g., Still Face Experiment: Dr. Edward Tronick
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What does it mean to really listen?
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Real listeners must comprehend what is said to them. They must understand messages, get their partners’ meaning, and think about what is being said.
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What percent of daily communication uses listening?
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55.4% of students daily communication is listening
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Is hearing the same thing as listening?
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No, hearing is processing sound waves by the central nervous system
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What 4 steps are involved in active listening?
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1. Attention
2. Interpretation
-assigning meaning to what you hear
-errors
-are common in listening
-we assign the wrong meaning
-we “hear” what we want to hear not what the other person is saying
3. Evaluation
-determine accuracy and usefulness of messages
4. Feedback
-respond to what others said
-asking for clarifications
-paraphrasing
-nodding
-smiling
-making eye contact
-Accuracy
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How do new technologies pose problems for listening?
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social media “message ecosystem” = lack of privacy, interruptions, noise and distraction.
cell phone communication = often rude, public, antisocial
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What is the “robot movement?”
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Meaningful communication between people and computers
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How do the authors define listening?
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Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal cues.
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How is listening different from hearing?
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Hearing is processing soundwaves by the central nervous system
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What is the still face experiment?
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Mothers stayed motionless and expressionless in front of their baby, resulting in each baby crying until the mother showed emotion.
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What non-verbals do we use to show someone that we are listening to them?
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- Maintaining eye contact
· Nodding and smiling
· Asking for clarification
· Encourage other person to express his or her thoughts
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How is emotional involvement important to listening?
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shows interest and support for the other person.
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What is empathy and why is this important to listening?
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empathy = trying to understand the other person’s situation from their perspective not yours
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In an average day about how many social media messages does the average person process?
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200 messages a day
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What does it mean to say messages in social media are asynchronous?
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Different times and time lags impair communication
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Name the six different types of listening. What is the purpose of each?
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1. Discriminatory listening: focuses on identification of what something means.
2. Appreciative listening: Listening for enjoyment.
3. Evaluative listening: Listening to make judgements about the message.
4. Empathic listening: Listening to show support.
5. Problem-focused listening: Listening to understand and diagnose problems.
6. Comprehensive: listening to understand and remember information
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What is paraphrasing and why is it important in listening?
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Stating in your own words what you think the other person means.
Allows you to describe and understand something in your own words.
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What are the 4 kinds of listening styles described in this chapter?
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-Person Oriented
-Content Oriented
-Action Oriented
-Time Oriented
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Person-oriented listening is a way to build relationships.
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Person-oriented listening is a way to build relationships.
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What is content-oriented listening style?
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-Less about relationships and more about complex information
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What is action-oriented listening?
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-Listen for a specific reason or goal
-Become impatient
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What is time-oriented listening?
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-Keeping on schedule
-Listening not pleasurable
-Wanting to get into and out of a conversation ASAP
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What should we listen for?
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- we should listen to the nonverbal cues that accompany our partners’ words - we should realize that words have multiple meanings and listen for the intentions behind others’ words - we should listen for patterns of responses, recognizing when we are repeating unwanted communication sequence - listen to what and how we are communication - It is as important to listen for what is not said as for what is said
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What causes conflict?
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The illusion of transparency: we believe we are communicating clearly, but we are not.
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What are some positive aspects of conflict?
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-Shows interdependence
-Signals need for change
-Allows for problem diagnosis
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What are 3 major reasons why people are not able to manage conflict?
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-Hot emotions
-Biased perceptions
-communication obstacles
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What is meant by hot and cool emotions?
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Hot = fast emotional response part of the brain associated with flight/fight
Cool = rational, complex, slow, and emotionally neutral
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What part of the brain controls hot and cooler emotions?
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Hot = amygdala
Cool = prefrontal cortex
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Okay, if that is true how do you cool off conflict?
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Understand the problem, and talk about interests rather than positions.
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How do people bias their perceptions in situations of conflict? What is reactive devaluation?
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- they tend to believe they are always right and can’t accept when they are wrong
-reactive devaluation: dismissal/devaulation of a proposal if an antagonist suggests it
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In sum, the authors say there are 3 biased beliefs. These are:
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---Falsely assuming we are being fairer, more responsible, and more deserving than partner
---Falsely assuming we are expressing ourselves clearly and effectively.
---Evaluating one’s own satisfaction with the outcome of a conflict on the basis of how an opponent reacts.
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How do biased perceptions feed conflict?
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-oversimplifying
-focus on differences
-I win, you lose
-I am more deserving
-assumptions about understanding
-not valuing other proposals
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What is gunny sacking? kitchen-sinking? stereotyping?
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--gunny sacking = failing to confront problems
--kitchen-sinking = throwing all grievances into a single fight
--stereotyping = put conflict into a category
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What are six rules for effective feedback?
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1) Own your own message; (2) Don't apologize for your feelings; (3) Make your messages specific and behavioral; (4) Make sure your verbal and nonverbal messages match; (5) Avoid evaluating and interpreting your partner (6) reframing dysfunctional communication as a positive strategy, e.g. who gets the children becomes what is best for the children and how can we observe our parental responsibilities
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What is emotional intelligence?
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The ability to process emotional information
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What is the big difference between entity theory and Incremental theory?
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entity = peoples nature are fixed, they are not likely to change, tend to stick with initial impression
incremental = people can change as circumstances change, more flexible
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How can empathic listening be enhanced?
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Respecting other’s point of view, make sure to understand what the other person has said before responding, check your understanding by paraphrasing, and express relational as well as content meaning.
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What does it mean to be mindless/ mindful?
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mindless- being trapped in old categories of thought, do not attend to new information, and rely on single perspectives
Mindful- alert and lively awareness
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Are there any advantages to being mindless?
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-mastery
-frequent, scripted behavior
-shortcut
-efficiency
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How is social cognition defined?
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processes shaping perceptions of people and events
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Is the brain an organizer or a recorder of information?
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organizer |
What are performance failures and why do people have them?
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Performance failures:
1.Physical states
2. Opposite opinions:
3. Poor Motivation:
4. Sheer Stubbornness:
5. Lack of Practice:
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What is the mood congruity hypothesis?
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Indicates that memories are more easily retrieved when there is a match between emotional state at the time the original memory was formed and the emotional state when it was retrieved.
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How is interpretive competence defined?
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the ability to label, organize, and interpret the conditions surrounding an interaction
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What is the Principle of least effort?
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rely on stereotypes
don’t work to figure something out
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What did Janice Krieger learn about air accidents?
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Positive results when the pilots used mindful communication compared to when they used scripted thinking. The two pilots need to work together and focus on what could go right and not what could go wrong.
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What are schemata?
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cognitive structures used to make sense
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What is a role schema?
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An internal representation of the rules, norms, and behavioral expectations associated with social roles.
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A relational schema?
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connection with someone else
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A self schema?
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concept of personhood
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An event schema?
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what to expect in specific situations --> "Scripts" how people should act in specific situations
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What is a script? What is an episode?
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Script is routinized automatic behavior.
Script is verbal episode
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How are scripts related to episodes? What kinds of episodes are highly scripted? What kinds of episodes are not scripted?
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--Closed scripts are tightly scripted.
--Open scripts are only somewhat scripted.
--Defined scripts start out unscripted.
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What is a prototype model?
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central idea we have for something(Thanksgiving..)
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What is a personal construct?
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how a particular person experiences other people, objects, and events
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What is a stereotype?
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stereotypes generalize about the behavior of a whole group of people
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Four Core Processes of Social Cognition
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Attention: Selecting Information
Interpretation: Giving Information Meaning
Judgment: Using Information to Form Impressions and Make Decisions
Memory: Storing Information for Future Use
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What is the difference between an open, closed, and defined episode?
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--Closed = tightly scripted (wedding)
--open = only somewhat scripted (hanging out with friends)
--Defined = starts out unscripted, define what episode means (you first day as manager on the job)
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What 4 processes are involved in sizing up people?
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1. Personal constructs: idea we have about others (physical characteristics, role constructs, interaction, etc)
2. Implicit personality theory: generalize from observed traits to a complete picture of a person
3. Self-fulfilling prophecies: people conform to the expectations of others
4. Cognitive Complexity: how much effort we put into cognition
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What is implicit personality theory. What does it mean to say that some traits are central traits?
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Implicit personality theory: Generalize from observed traits to a complete picture of another person
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What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
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People conform to the expectations of others
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What is cognitive complexity?
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How much effort we put into cognition.
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What is a primacy effect and why is it important? What is the recency effect?
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Primacy effect: The first impression tends to last.
Recency effect: The last or most recent perception is remembered as the most salient.
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What are central traits?
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most memorable traits, have the greatest impact on our perception of others
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What is self monitoring? High self monitor versus low self monitor
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Self-monitoring is the ability to adapt to the demands of any situation. High self monitor means you are good at adapting.
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What is a master-contract?
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what is our relationship to others and what rules to follow
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When we make an internal attribution, to what are we attributing a person's behavior? When we make a situational attribution, how are we explaining behavior?
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--Internal attribution: We explain the behavior of others as something within them. Such as personality
--Situational attribution: We explain failures based on factors outside of the person.
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What is the fundamental attribution error?
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we tend to use internal attributions more with out-group members.
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What is the anchoring effect?
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The fact that one’s final judgement about the cause of another’s behavior is almost always biased in the direction of one’s initial point of view
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What is naïve realism?
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The experiential belief that what we perceive, and to a lesser extent what we remember, are relatively complete and accurate representations of the world
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What is the dual process model of impression formation?
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Theories about when we are likely to look closely at the data available to us about people and situations (bottom-up, controlled processing) versus when we are likely to rely on prior categorical schema (top-down, automatic processing)
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What is controlled categorization
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A cognitive bias that consists of interpreting another’s negative behaviors as internal or dispositional rather than external
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What is personalization?
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abandon stereotypes and actively perceive unique qualities of the individual.
· Example: going to Africa and living there for some time – you change your perceptions of people
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What are 2 types of accounts?
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1. take responsibility for your action
2. claim you are victim of circumstance
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What is role competence and why is it important?
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· Authors talk about your position on a social map – this is social competence
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Does culture control our behavior? How?
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culture controls behavior. we are “creatures of culture”. roles are defined by culture.
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What did Burleson et al. learn about gender differences in giving comfort?
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men judged other men who used person-centered messages as less realistic and less likable.
Burleson concluded that
· Although men recognize person-centered messages are effective they believe using such messages are inappropriate
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What is a social position?
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your place in a social hierarchy based on:
occupation
age
family
education
job title
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What is meant by a social hierarchy?
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arrangement based on roles and power.
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How is a role defined?
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by culture; by how someone lives it
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What are the four features of roles? Are we born with roles?
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1. learned (not born with you) = we acquire a role in living. what will a baby grow up to be?
2. general rather than specific = what does it mean it to be a parent? a student?
3. central to our identity = spend nearly half of your life in a job, important to definition of self
4.we play multiple roles = son or daughter and athlete
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Do roles play any part in our identity?
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Roles are general guidelines for behavior
Two problems with role identity
· 1. Role rigidity
o A role “takes over” one’s entire identity – can’t deviate from the role
o Example: see your boss in the grocery store and they still act standoffish – the role takes over, can’t get away from it
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At around what age do children acquire gender roles?
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around age 4
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What is role rigidity?
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A role “takes over” one’s entire identity. Can’t deviate from the role.
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What is role conflict?
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· 2 or more roles make opposing demands
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How do social support, amount of commitment and rewards affect roles?
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o Social support
We need the help of other people to carry out our roles effectively.
o Amount of commitment
We do a better job when we throw ourselves into a role.
(Bem’s Self-perception theory) We think about our own behavior to learn who we are.
o Rewards
Motivates carrying out our role.
Intrinsic reward= feel good inside
Extrinsic= praise from others, money, love
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What 4 types of social support and how is each defined?
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1. informational support = how to find the answer to a question
2. tangible aid = hand over objects and resources to someone else
3. emotional support = offer comfort to someone. esteem help. help someone feel good about themselves
4. network support = identify other people who can help
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What do Cooley's looking-glass self theory and social comparison theory have to say about the effects of social support on role-identity?
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Cooley’s looking-glass self = others reflect back to us how they perceive our presentation/performance
social comparison theory = we turn to others to check the validity of our opinions and abilities
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What is Bern's self-perception theory? What does it have to say about the extent to which commitment to a role determines its significance?
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amount of commitment = we think about our own behavior to learn who we are
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How is your generation described?
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As millennials
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What does Goffman describe about face?
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· 1. Personal front
o Use of costume, makeup, and other props in our self presentation
· 2. Back Region
o Where we go to be off record and out of public view
· 3. Role set
o All the people who help us perform – our “cast”
· 4. Role distance
o Gap between the role we play and who we are
· 5. Face
o Socially approved identity
· 6. Line
o Verbal and nonverbal behaviors used during a performance
o When we are talking to someone a line is what we do and what we say
· 7. Face work
o Amount of effort spent in presenting face to others
· 8. Setting
o Context to present our performance
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What is face?
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socially approved identity
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What is line?
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verbal and nonverbal behaviors used during a performance
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When we engage in face work, what do we do?
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Face threatening acts
· Giving thanks
· Invitations
· Compliments
· Criticism
· Refusal
· Asking for help
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What 8 features make up Goffman’s face model? How is each feature defined?
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1. personal front
use of costume, makeup and other props in our self presentation
2. back region
where we go to be off record and out of public view
3. role set
all the people who can help us perform
4. role distance
gap between the role we play and who we are
5. face
socially approved identity
6. line
verbal and nonverbal behaviors used during a performance
7. face work
amount of effort spent in presenting face to others
8. setting
context to present our performance
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What is meant by setting and personal front?
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Personal front=
o Use of costume, makeup, and other props in our self presentation
Setting=
o Context to present our performance
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What is meant by line in Goffman model?
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o Verbal and nonverbal behaviors used during a performance
o When we are talking to someone a line is what we do and what we say
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What is role distance in Goffman model?
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· Role distance
o Gap between the role we play and who we are
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What is a role set in Goffman model? What characteristics must members of a role set exhibit?
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· Role set
o All the people who help us perform – our “cast”
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What is meant by a face-threatening act?
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Facework
Face threatening acts
· Giving thanks
· Invitations
· Compliments
· Criticism
· Refusal
· Asking for help
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What is suggested by gaining face versus losing face?
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Both face gain and loss
· Are sensitive to connection with others
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What is altercasting? What is mirroring?
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altercasting = choosing a partner who “adds” everything we lack
mirroring = following the lead of a conversational partner
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What do narrative theorists believe?
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narrative theory = make sense of world by telling stories
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What is a myth?
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a shared story about origins and destinies
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How is empathic concern different from perspective taking?
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empathic concern = pay attention to the emotional being shown by others
perspective taking = we are trying to understand what the other person is experiencing from their perspective (more cognitive than emotional)
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What is face loss?
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o can happen to us or to someone else
o good to try to help someone restore their face (self esteem) by saying encouraging things to them
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What 3 descriptions have been given to your generation?
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The Net Generation
Millenials
Also, we’re called the “Me” generation
Narcissistic self
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What does it mean to be narcissistic?
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- too much self love
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As a culture, do we Americans value personal identity?
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- yes, americans tend to value personal over social identity
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What is the difference between social identity and personal identity?
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- social identity = roles and rules defined by society
- personal identity = your own roles and rules
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What is a modal self? What kind of modal self best fits into the Colonial era? How did this modal self change with the Industrial Revolution? What was the modal self like as the twentieth century emerged?
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- modal self = idealized type of person in a particular time
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What is individualism and collectivism?
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Individualism:
-”I” consciousness
-Self orientation
-Private life closed to others
-Friendship across classes
-Belief in individual decisions
-Direct Communication
-Share opinion with others
Collectivism:
-”We” consciousness
-Other orientation
-Private life open to group
-Friends based on status
-Belief in group decisions
-Indirect communication
-Keep opinion to yourself
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Is the US described as individualist or collective?
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Individualistic
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Who was Hofstede?
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- Developed a model for the comparison of culture
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What countries are thought of as collectivistic?
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Japan
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Who was Hermes?
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- the goal of Hofstede was to help Hermes be more effective in doing business
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What is the self-concept? How is it different from personality?
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Self Concept:
- each person’s own image of themselves
Personality:
- refers to enduring characteristics measured by psychological tests
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What is suggested by the term “microwave” family?
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· A sit-down family dinner is becoming rare.
· Everyone has something to do.
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What are the five different ways of thinking about the self offered in the text?
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- Self as narrative
- Self as cognitive schema
- Self as behavior
- Self as relational achievement
- Self as internal dialogue
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What is the narrative self?
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- self is a story of your life with you as the main, heroic character
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What is a psychosocial moratorium?
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- the process of trying on a temporary new identity
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What is self talk?
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- internal dialogue about who we and our worth as a person
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What is the schematic self?
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- self schemata = our experiences?
- e.g. = life script; Self handicapping strategy
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What is a life script?
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- how we think about ourselves and relate to others
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What is a self-handicapping strategy?
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- we make an excuse in advance for our anticipated failures to protect ourselves
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What is the behavioral self?
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- how we behave says something about who we are
e.g. perfectionist, friend of planet, team player
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What is the relational self?
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- self identity formed through relationships
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According to Cooley's looking glass self, what are the essential elements in the self-concept?
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- we learn who we are by feedback we get from others
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According to Zen philosophy, how important is the individual self? Is it something to be valued or to be eliminated?
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- philosophy is based on the idea of eliminating self awareness which is seen as a form of selfishness (pg. 212 - 213)
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What is your own communicator style? What style elements were high and what were low for you? What does that say about you as a communicator?
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- Communicator style = how we talk and act
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What is a noble self? How will he or she act?
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- noble self = consistency is emphasized
· Says exactly what she/he thinks
o Can be hurtful to others.
· Never deviates from norms
o Some situations demand a switch
· Values consistency in personality
o Consistency = inflexibility
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What is a rhetorical reflector? How will he or she act?
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- Rhetorical reflector = seems to be a different person in every situation; tends to be negative
ú Too easily changed
ú Rhetorical reflector tends to be negative
· Tells people what they want to hear
· Acquiesces to other people and loses
· Self in the process
· This person is predictable in conformity
· Forms to everyone else even though that’s not who they are
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What principles does the Rhetorical Sensitive believe about the self and about communication?
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Rhetorical sensitive person= able to adapt to the communication style of the other. Able to change in certain situations. They know when to communicate and what not to communicate. Just about right for change
Avoids rigid opinions
Takes others into account
Realizes times to be quiet to spare the other
Seeks a variety of ways to communicate
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What is communication apprehension
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Rhetorical sensitive person= able to adapt to the communication style of the other. Able to change in certain situations. They know when to communicate and what not to communicate. Just about right for change
Avoids rigid opinions
Takes others into account
Realizes times to be quiet to spare the other
Seeks a variety of ways to communicate
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What is communication apprehension
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- fear associated with communication; overcome through learning
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What is attachment style? How does it relate to communication in later life?
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- attachment style = how we related to other people
- originates from early experiences
- secure/sociable
- fearful/distrustful
- preoccupied = dependent on others
- dismissing = denies any need for intimacy
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What is intimacy motivation? How do people high in intimacy motivation act?
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- need for intimacy = readiness for warm communicative exchanges
- self attributed need for intimacy = the conscious awareness of self as needing intimacy
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What is self-disclosure? What is flooded and premature disclosure?
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- self disclosure = info you reveal about yourself
· Avoid “flooded disclosures” or “premature disclosures”
Flooded Disclosure
· Revealing too much
Premature Disclosure
Revealing private information too early in the relationship
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What rules should one follow in self-disclosure?
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- avoid “flooded disclosure” (revealing too much) or “premature disclosure” (revealing too little info when more is expected)
- be appropriate
- begin small, low risk
- disclose only if other reciprocates
- disclose comfortable info
- disclose important info only to people most valued
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What is the point of Big Eden in the Screening Room segment?
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- how hard it is to find the words to talk about the things that really matter and how secrets may not be secrets to anyone except ourselves
- also shows us what it might be like to live in a world where being different is perfectly okay and where the people who love you just want you to be happy
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