MANGMT 3000: FINAL EXAM
149 Cards in this Set
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Management-by-exception
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A method of leadership done passively or actively that prescribes when leaders should intervene to increase a subordinate's effort to meet standards
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Great Man" theory
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A theory of leadership that explained leadership by examining the traits and characteristics of individuals considered to be historically great leaders.
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Traits-based leadership theory
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A theory of leadership that tries to reveal a set of universal traits and skills that are relevant in all leadership situations
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Cognitive Skills
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A leader's ability to understand the internal and external environments, use sound reasoning to make decisions, and communicate effectively
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Technical Skills
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A leader's knowledge about an organization and job-related activities
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Interpersonal skills
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A leader's ability to interact with others
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Character
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The core values and fundamental beliefs that drive behavior in variable situations
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Leadership style
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The pattern of behaviors that leaders use in situations
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Task-oriented behavior
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Behaviors that prioritize the accomplishment of a task in an efficient and reliable way
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Relations-oriented behavior
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Behaviors that prioritize interpersonal relationships, the value of workers as humans, and a strong commitment to the unit and its mission
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Managerial grid
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A two-dimensional grid showing leaders' different levels of task-oriented and relations-oriented behavior, which results in particular styles of leadership
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Charismatic leaders
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Individuals who arouse strong followership through inspirational visions and/ or compelling personal attributes
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Transformational leadershp
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The set of behaviors that leaders use to transform or change their organization and individuals for the bette
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Transactional leadership
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The process by which a leader provides something to subordinates in return for something the subordinates want
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Contingent reward
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The exchange process between leaders and followers in which leaders offer rewards to subordinates in exchange for their services
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Leader-member exchange theory
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A method of leadership in which leaders treat each follower differently, and as a result, develop unique relationships with each member
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Relationship life cycle
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A concept marked by the stranger, acquaintance, and mature partnership phases in which a leader and follower undergo a process that dictates whether followers become part of the in-group or outgroup
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Fiedler contingency model
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A contingency theory in which leaders are more effective depending on the favorability of a leadership situation, which is described by leader-member relations, task structure, and positional power of the leader
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Situational leadership
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A leadership theory based on the interplay among (1) the amount of task-related behaviors a leader exhibits; (2) the amount of relationship-related behaviors a leader exhibits; and (3) the level at which followers are mature enough to perform a specific task, function, or objective
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Path-goal theory of leadership
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A theory that states that the most important aspect in leadership is the follower's expectation that a task can be accomplished and that it will lead to rewards
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Leadership substitutes
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Aspects of a situation that make leadership unnecessary
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Leadership neutralizers
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Aspects of a situation that hinder a leader's ability to act a particular way
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Organizational behavior
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The study of interpersonal attitudes and preferences, behavioral dynamics, and organizational performance
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Self-awareness
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An understanding of one's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
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Interpersonal effectiveness
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The ability to acknowledge and take responsibility for one's role in cultivating relationships and in communicating effectively with others
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Intelligence
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A person's ability to profit from experience, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, and adapt to changes in the environment
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Intelligence quotient (IQ)
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A measure of the overall quality of an individual's mental abilities
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Creativity
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The ability to combine or link ideas in new ways to generate novel and useful alternatives
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Triarchic theory of intelligence
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The theory that individuals possess three components of intelligence: (1) computational (analytic), (2) experiential (creative), and (3) contextual (practical).
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Cultural intelligence
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The ability to understand and respond appropriately to different cultural contexts and situations
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Emotional intelligence
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The capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing our emotions and relationships in a productive manner
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Personality
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A system of enduring inner characteristics, tendencies, and temperaments that are both inherited and shaped by social, cultural, and environmental factors
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Locus of control
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The extent to which an individual believes that he or she can control or influence the outcome of events
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Resilience
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The belief that one can control or adapt to certain events and outcomes and be able to bounce back from difficulty
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Self-montoring
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The ability of individuals to read cues from their environment to assess their behavior. People can vary from being high self-monitors to being low self-monitors
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Power
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The potential of one individual or a group to influence the behavior, thinking, or attitudes of another individual or group
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Influence
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The means or vehicle by which power is exercised
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Legitimate power
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a type of interpersonal power that is based on the formal position an individual holds in an organization
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Reward power
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a type of interpersonal power that gives someone the ability to reward another for his or her behavior
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Coercive power
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a type of interpersonal power that gives someone the ability to punish another for his or her behavior
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Expert power
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type of interpersonal power based on an individual having specialized knowledge or skills
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Referent power
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a type of interpersonal power based on the personal liking an individual has for another
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Positional power
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Power that comes from an individual's formal place within an organization's structure
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Personal power
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Power that is obtained from having personal attributes that others desire
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Relational power
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power gained from the types of networks to which an individual belongs, the types of people in those networks, and the strength of the relationships within the networks
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Empowerment
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the process of sharing power with subordinates and pushing decision making an implementation to the lowest possible level, increasing the influence and autonomy of all employees
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Dependence asymmetry
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a phenomenon that exists when a firm is more dependent on a business partner than a business partner is on a firm
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Joint dependence
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a phenomenon that exists when two firms are equally dependent on the other
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Interdependence
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quality that exists whenever one individual requires another individual's assistance to achieve a goal.
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Resource scarcity
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the lack of sufficient resources, such as money and staff, that forces individual in organization to make critical decisions about how to best allocate the available resources throughout the company
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Law of reciprocity
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The idea that people should repay in the future what another person has done for them in the present
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Coalitions
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individuals and/or groups that have common interests and perspectives
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Decision making
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The process of identifying issues and making choices from alternative courses of action
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Theory of rational choice
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the theory that individuals make decisions based on a rational thought process that optimizes self-interest
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Bounded rationality
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a set of boundaries or constraints that tend to complicate the rational decision-making process
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Satisficing
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the act of choosing a solution that is good enough
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Conditions of certainty
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Conditions in which individuals have all of the information they need to make the best possible decision
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Ambiguity
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situations that are characterized by uncertainty and risk and where the optimal decision is not clear or obvious
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Conditions of risk
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Conditions in which individuals have information about an organization's goals, objectives, priorities, and potential courses of action, but they do not have complete information about the possible outcomes for each course of action
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Conditions of uncertainty
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Conditions in which individuals have information about an organization's objectives and priorities, but they do not have complete information about alternative courses of action or about the possible outcomes for each one
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Intuitive decision making
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insights that are tapped through intuition and are not always fully understood by the decision maker
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Heuristics
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Rules of thumb or short-cuts that individuals use to save time when making complex decisions
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Availability heuristics
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The rule of thumb that contends that individuals assess the frequency, probability, or likely cause of an event by the degree to which instances or occurrences of that event are readily "available" in memory
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Representative heuristics
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The rule of thumb that contends that individuals tend to look for traits in another person or situation that correspond with previously formed stereotypes
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Adjustment heuristics
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The rule of thumb that contends that individuals make estimates or choices based on a certain starting point
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Confirmation bias
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a bias in which people tend to seek information that confirms a decision before seeking information that disconfirms a decision, even ifthe disconfirming information is more powerful an dinmportant
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Status quo bias
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The tendency to favor the "here and now" and to reject potential change
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Framing
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alternative presentations of the same information that can significantly alter a decision
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Escalation of commitment
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occurs when decision makers commit themselves to a particular course of action beyond the level suggested by rationality as a means of justifying previous commitments
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Appropriateness framework
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the process of making decisions based on social norms or expectations
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Programmed decisions
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decisions that are made in response to recurring organizational problems that require individuals to follow established rules and procedures
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Nonprogrammed decisions
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Decisions that are made in response to novel, poorly defined, or unstructured situations that require managers to use their best judgement
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Classical model
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A model of decision making that seeks to maximize economic or other outcomes using a rational choice process
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Administrative model
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A model of decision making that acknowledges that managers may be unable to make economically rational decisions even if they want to because they lack sufficient information on which to base their decision
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Political model
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A model of decision making that acknowledges that most organizational decisions involve many managers who have different goals and who have to share information to reach an agreement
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Garbage can model
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A model of decision making whereby problems, solutions, participants, and choices flow throughout the organization. a decision process is not viewed as a sequence of steps that begins with a problem and ends with a solution
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Playfulness
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the deliberate, temporary relaxation of rules to explore many possible alternatives
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Conflict
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An emotional or cognitive response that occurs when interests, perspectives, and behaviors one individual or group explicitly differ from those of another individual or group
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Negotiation
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A process by which tow parties attempt to reach agreement on an issue by offering and reviewing various positions or courses of action
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Interpersonal conflict
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Conflict that occurs between two or more individuals who are members of the same group
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Intergroup conflict
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conflict that occurs between tow or more groups
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Social identity theory
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a theory that proposes that group members of an ingroup will seek to find negative aspects of an out-group to enhance their self-image
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Realistic conflict theory
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a theory that proposes that limited resources will lead to conflict between groups
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Affective conflict
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conflict in which individuals tend to attack each other's personalities through criticism, threats, and insults
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Cognitive conflict
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conflict that results from disagreements over work-related issues such as meeting schedules, work assignments, processes, or the task itself
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Groupthink
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Extreme consensus during a decision-making process
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Escalation
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an increase in conflict that occurs when one person's negative behaviors encourage or foster another person's negative behaviors
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De-escalation
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the reduction or elimination of conflict
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Issue
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the subject of a discussion
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Position
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the perspective a person takes on an issue
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Interests
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the underlying reasons or needs of each party involved in an issue
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Distributive negotiations
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Single-issue negotiations that are assumed to be part of a "fixed-pie" where one person's gain is the other person's loss
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Bargaining zone
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The range of settlements within which it is better for both parties to agree than not to agree
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Positive bargaining zone
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The zone that exists when negotiators' acceptable positions overlap
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Negative bargaining zone
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The zone that exists when negotiators' acceptable positions do not overlap and no settlement will be acceptable to both parties
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Integrative negotiations
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Negotiations that focus on multiple issues to "expand the pie" and actively seek alternative solutions that satisfy both parties
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Best alternative to a negotiated agreement, or BATNA
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The course of action that a person will take if a negotiation ends in an impasse
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Reservation value
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The lowest offer a negotiator is willing to accept. I t is the point at which a negotiator is indifferent between accepting a proposed offer and rejecting it for its BATNA
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Zone of possible agreement, or ZOPA
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The set of all possible deals that would be acceptable to both parties. Is the space between one party's reservation value and the other party's.
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Package reservation value
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The lowest value that a negotiator would be willing to accept for a package offer
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Claim value
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The process by which a negotiator attempts to gain benefits or concessions for his or her position
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Create value
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The process of expanding the opportunities or issues that can be evaluated in a negotiation. By expanding the issues, there is a greater likelihood that each party will achieve some level of satisfaction.
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Mediator
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an individual who doesn't make a final decision but works with each party to find some common ground on which both parties can agree.
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Arbitrator
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an individual who listens to both sides of a disagreement and makes a final decision based on the arguments
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Team
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a group of two or more people with complementary skills who are committed to working together to achieve a specific objective.
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Task complexity
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The amount of information that must be processed to understand the task, the degree of uncertainty about possible outcomes, the presence of many subtasks that require a range of skills and knowledge, or the absence of standardized procedures to conduct the task
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Task interdependence
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The extent to which group members need to work with and rely on each other to produce the collective work of the group
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Task objectives
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Issues that orient team members toward their goals and priorities and help them understand how their work fits in the bigger picture
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Manager-led teams
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teams in which the manager acts as the team leader
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Vertical teams
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teams composed of a manager and his or her subordinates in the formal chain of command usually in one functional department
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Horizontal teams
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teams composed of employees from about the same hierarchical level but from several different departments in the organization
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Self-directed teams
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teams that determine their own objectives and the methods by which to achieve them
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Collocated teams
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teams that use a significant amount of face-to face communication to make operating decisions. they operate in close proximity to one another, engage in a lot of social interaction, and provide quick feedback on the team's progress to one another
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Geographically distributed teams
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Teams that are made up of geographically or organizationally dispersed members who rely heavily on electronic tools such as e-mail, fax, voice mail, telephone and vidoconferencing
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Forming stage
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when team members define the task that is to be done and how that task is to be accomplished, setting the ground rules for the team
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Storming stage
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when team members experience conflicts about interpersonal issues and differences in perspective
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Norming stage
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when team members uncover ways to create new standards that encourage more collaborative behavior
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Performing stage
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when team members adopt and play roles that enhance the activities of the group
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Adjourning stage
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when a team has completed its task and the team is disbanded
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Team norms
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Expected team behaviors
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Social loafing
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disengaging from the team process and failing to contribute to the team's recommendations or other deliverables
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Participation
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The extent to which individuals engage in the process of generating solutions and articulating their opinions and perspectives
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Blocking behaviors
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behaviors that inhibit the team and its members from achieving their objectives
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Conformity
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the action of people behaving in line with a group's expectations and belief
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Boundary manager
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Manager who determines how the team will work with clients, upper management, and others who have an interest in the team's product. They buffer the team from organizational infighting, persuade top management to support the team's work and coordinate and negotiate with other groups on wo…
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Motivation
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the desire, stimulus, or incentive to pursue a particular course of action
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Extrinsic rewards
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rewards used to facilitate or motivate task performance that include pay, promotions, fringe benefits, and job security
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Intrinsic rewards
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Rewards associated with "doing the job" that include interesting and challenging work, self-direction and responsibility, variety, opportunities to use one's skills and abilities and sufficient feedback regarding one's efforts
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Content thories
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the study of the incentives and needs that motivate people to perform in a certain way
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Hierarchy of needs theory
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the theory that individuals have multiple needs, that must be fulfilled in a specific hierarchical order to ensure the greatest level of satisfaction
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ERG theory
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the theory that individuals are motivated by three primary needs: existence, relatedness, and growth
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Two-factor theory
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the theory that two conditions, hygiene factors and motivators simultaneously act as drivers of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
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Motivators
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The direct consequences of doing the job and the primary cause of satisfaction on the job
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Hygiene factors
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Job factors that are potential dissatisfiers that relate to physiological , safety, and belongingness needs.
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Acquired needs theory
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the theory that individuals are driven or motivated by three needs: affiliation, power, and achievement
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Need for achievment
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need to set, meet, and exceed goals
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Need for affiliation
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need to interact, socialize, and develop friendships
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Need for power
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Need to seek opportunities for personal aggrandizement or the need to make an impact on and influence others
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Four-drive theory
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the theory that fulfilling four drives: acquire, bond, comprehend, and defend underlies motivation and that these drives affect employee emotions and behaviors
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Process thories
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explains why people behave in ways to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their overall level of satisfaction after they have attempted to fulfill their needs
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Goal-setting theory
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the theory that setting goals that are difficult, but achievable, is a significant motivator of performance
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Expectancy theory
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the theory that employees expect that high effort should lead to good performance and that should lead to reward
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Equity theory
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the theory that people will compare their circumstances with those of similar others and that this behavior motivates them to seek fairness in the way they are rewarded for performance
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Reinforcement theory
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the theory that positive and negative reinforcements can induce certain behavior
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Positive reinforcement
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the act of rewarding a desired behavior
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Negative reinforcement
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he act of removing an aversive condition in response to a desired behavior
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Punishment
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The act of presenting an aversive stimulus in response to an undesired behavior
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Extinction
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the idea that a behavior stops because it has ceased to be rewarded or punished
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Theory of operant conditiong
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the theory that both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior while punishment and extinction decrease behavior
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MANGMT 3000: EXAM 1