PSYCH 2310: FINAL EXAM
149 Cards in this Set
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psychology
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the science and development of mental processes
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Biopsychosocial approach
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- The deep level, Biology: genes, brain, neuro-transmitters, survival, reflexes, sensation
-In the middle, Psychology: thoughts, emotions, moods, choices, behaviors, traits, motivations, knowledge, perceptions
-The outer level, Environment: social Influences, culture, education, relatio…
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Biological (physiological) psychology
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the study of the biological mechanisms underlying behavior. The brain and the nervous system, in the endocrine system, and in other organismic processes
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Clinical psychology
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the study of problems encountered by individuals, groups, and families-especially problems involving psychopathology. Application of psychological knowledge and techniques for the alleviation of these problems
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Cognitive psychology
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the study of memory and thinking, conscious processes, perception, problem solving, and creativity, among others.
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Community psychology
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the study of social processes and problems of groups, organizations, and neighborhoods, and the development and evaluation of progress for social change and social policy based on psychological understanding
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Developmental Psychology
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the study of intellectual development, emerging personality, and the acquisition of language, as well as psychophysiological and social development processes as individuals develop from birth through old age.
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Educational psychology
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focuses on the study of learning outcomes, student attributes, and instructional processes directly related to the classroom and the school, such as amount of instructional time or individual differences in school learning.
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Hindsight bias
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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome. that one would have foreseen. ( knew it all along phenomenon)
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Roger's theraputic conditions
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genuineness, acceptance, and empathy
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Genuiness
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expressing true feelings
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Acceptance
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help clients feel freer and more open to change
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Empathy
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sensing and reflecting their clients' feelings
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Factor Analysis
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the statistical procedure used to identify clusters of test items that tap basic components of a trait
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Trait
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a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
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Person-situation controversy
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the controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining a person's behavior
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Social cues
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A _____ ___ can either be a verbal or non-verbal hint, which can be positive or negative. These _____ guide conversation and other social interactions. A few examples of _______ _____ include: facial expression. vocal tone.
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Personality traits
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These do influence our behavior
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Narcissism
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excessive self-love and self-absorbtion. More gamling and more cheating.
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Diversity
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the state or quality of being different or varied
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Individualism
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giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
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Individualistic cultures
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North America, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand
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Collectivism
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giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly
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Collectivistic cultures
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South Korea, Japan, and China
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Fundamental attribution error
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the tendency for observers to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
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foot-in-the-door phenomenon
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the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
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Stanford Prison experiments
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In hid 1972 Stanford Prison stimulation, Philip Zimbardo created a toxic situation leading to the degrading of prisoners.
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cognitive dissonance theory
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the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent
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Group polarization
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When people of similar views form a group together, discussion within the group makes their views more extreme.
Thus, different groups become MORE different, more polarized, in their views.
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Milgram studies
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study the influence of direct commands on behavior.
In surveys, most people predict that in such a situation they would stop administering shocks when the "learner" expressed pain.
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Factors in attraction
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Proximity and familiarity
-Physical attractiveness
-Averageness, similarity
-Encounters once depended on proximity, working or living near the other person, but the key factor here is exposure.
-This effect probably helped our ancestors survive: What was familiar was more trustworthy,…
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Homosexuality as a disorder
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Fears present challenges to the development and maintenance of a positive self-image in gay, lesbian and bisexual persons and often to their families as well. ______________ is not a ______________.
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Anxiety disorders
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Generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder
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Generalized anxiety disorder
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in which a person is constantly tense, worried, and uneasy for no apparent reason
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Panic disorder
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in which a person experiences sudden episodes of intense dread
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Phobias
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in which a person is intensely and irrationally afraid of a specific object, activity, or situation
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Obsessive-compulsive disorder
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in which a person is troubled by unwanted, repetitive thoughts or actions
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Post-traumatic stress disorder
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in which a person has lingering memories, nightmares, and possibly other symptoms for weeks after a severely threatening, uncontrollable event
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Brain chemistry and depression
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-Brain activity is diminished in depression and increased in mania.
-Brain structure: smaller frontal lobes in depression and fewer axons in bipolar disorder
-Brain cell communication (neurotransmitters):
more norepinephrine (arousing) in mania, less in depression
reduced serotonin …
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Eclectic approach to therapy
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uses techniques from various forms of therapy to fit the client's problems, strengths, and preferences.
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Psychodynamic therapy
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focus is on improved self-awareness and insight into unconscious thoughts and feelings which may be rooted in past relationships. Therapists help reveal and resolve the dynamics, the forces and changes, in the individual.
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Counterconditioning
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refers to linking new, positive responses to previously aversive stimuli
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Exposure Therapy
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Exposure to the feared situation can reverse reinforcement by waiting for anxiety to subside during the exposure.
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Aversive conditioning
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can associate the drug with a negative response.
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Albert Ellis's rational-emotive behavior therapy
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challenging irrational beliefs and assumptions
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Aaron Beck's cognitive therapy for depression
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correcting cognitive distortions
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Donald Meichenbaum's stress inoculation training
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practicing healthier thinking before facing a stressor, disappointment, or frustration
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Family therapy
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Having a session with the whole family, at home or in the office, allows the therapist to work on the family system, that is, the family's patterns of alliances, authority, and communication.
A related modality is couples/marital therapy.
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Group therapy
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assembles about six to nine people with related needs into a group, facilitated by a therapist, to work on therapeutic goals together. The benefits include:
less cost per person.
more interaction, feedback, and support.
clients realize others share their problems and they are not alon…
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Self-help groups
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led by group members instead of a therapist.
They can be much larger than group therapy, with less interaction.
The focus is more on support rather than on working on goals during the group session.
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Therapeutic alliance
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the relationship between a healthcare professional and a client (or patient). It is the means by which a therapist and a client hope to engage with each other, and effect beneficial change in the client.
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Psychopharmacology
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refers to the study of drug effects on behavior, mood, and the mind.
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Defense mechanisms
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the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
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Psychodynamic perspective
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viewing personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences
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Personality
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a person's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
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Religious Involvement
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Health may improve because of the lifestyle and emotional factors associated with _____________ ______________, and not just the faith.
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Internal locus of control
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the perception that you can control your own fate
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External locus of control
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the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate
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Sense of control and stress
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If we are in control of our environment, then we have a far better chance of survival. Our deep subconscious mind thus gives us strong biochemical prods when we face some kind of danger (such as the fight-or-flight reaction)."
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Problem-focused coping
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means reducing the stressors, such as by working out a conflict, or tackling a difficult project.
Risk: magnifying emotional distress, especially if trying to change something that's difficult to change (e.g. another person's traits).
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Emotion-focused coping
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means reducing the emotional impact of stress by getting support, comfort, and perspective from others.
Risk: ignoring the problem.
We might focus on this style of coping when we perceive the stressor as something we cannot change.
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Effective expression of anger
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To reduce anger-related stress: defuse anger with exercise, talking, forgiveness, NOT "letting it out" (catharsis) by screaming, punching.
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Type A Personality
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Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive and anger prone people.
Impatient, verbally aggressive, and always pushing themselves and others to achieve.
In one study, heart attacks ONLY struck people with this personality.
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Type B Personality
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Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing relaxed people.
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Psychoneuroimmuniology
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the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health
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Stress
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The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
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Stressors
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the events and conditions that trigger our stress response, because they are perceived/ appraised as overwhelmingly challenging, threatening, and/or harmful.
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Stress reactions
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Phase 1: The "fight or flight" sympathetic nervous system responds, reducing pain and increasing the heart rate.
The core of the adrenal glands produces norepinephrine and epinephrine (adrenaline).
This system, identified by Walter Cannon (1871-1945), gives us energy to act.
Phase 2: T…
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Nervous system and emotion
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The physiological arousal felt during various emotions is orchestrated by the sympathetic nervous system, which triggers activity and changes in various organs.
Later, the parasympathetic division calms down the body.
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James-Lange Theory
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theory concerning body before thoughts
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Cannon-Bard Theory
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theory concerning body with thoughts
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Singer-Schachter/Two-factor theory
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theory concerning body plus thoughts/label
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Zajonc, LeDoux, Lazarus
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body/brain without conscious thoughts
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Eating behavior
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Biological influences: 1. Hypothalamic centers in the brain monitoring appetite, 2. Appetite hormones, 3. stomach pangs, 4. weight set/settling point, 5. attraction to sweet and salty tastes, 5. adaptive wariness towards novel foods
Psychological influences: 1. sight and sme;ll of food, …
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Dieting advice
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Begin with an understanding of the metabolic challenges you face, so that you blame slow progress on physiology, not poor willpower.
Begin with self-acceptance and a decision to change, rather than feeling shame.
Make gradual and consistent, not drastic and varying, lifestyle changes.
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Maslow's hierarchy
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Physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, self-actualization needs, and self transcendence needs
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Physiological needs
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Need to satisfy hunger and thirst
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Safety needs
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Need to feel the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe
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Belongingness and love needs
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Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation
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Esteem needs
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Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others
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Self-actualization needs
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Need to live up to our fullest and unique potential
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Self-transcendence needs
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Need to find meaning and identify beyond self
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Sensation-seeking
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a personality trait defined by the search for experiences and feelings, that are "varied, novel, complex and intense", and by the readiness to "take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences."
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Yerkes-Dodson law
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Arousal levels can help performance but too much arousal can interfere with performance.
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Homeostasis
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A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.
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Hertzberg's Two-Factor Theory
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1. Motivator factors that lead to satisfaction and motivate employees to work harder.
2. Hygiene factors can lead to dissatisfaction and a lack of motivation if they are absent.
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Hawthorne effect
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This theory is named after a series of social experiments on the influence of physical conditions on productivity. Researchers changed a number of physical conditions over the course of the experiments including lighting, working hours and breaks.
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Expectancy Theory
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This theory proposes that people will choose how to behave depending on the outcomes they expect as a result of their behavior.
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Theory of Attribution
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This theory explains how we attach meaning to our own, and other people's behavior.
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neuroscience (psychology perspective)
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how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences
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evolution (psychology perspective)
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how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes
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behavior genetics (psychology perspective)
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how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences
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Psychodynamic (psychology perspective)
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how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
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behavioral (Psychology perspective)
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how we learn observable responses
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cognitive (psychology perspective)
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how we encode, process, store, and retrieve info.
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social-cultural (psychology perspective)
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how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
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The scientific method
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How do psychologists ask and answer questions?
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Types of research
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case study, naturalistic observation, survey, correlation & causation
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informed consent
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giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate
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biological psychology
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the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.
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Structure of neurons
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cell body, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, glial cells
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neurotransmitters
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chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; this tells your heart when to beat, your lungs to breathe, and your stomach to digest;
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action potential
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A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
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nervous system
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the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
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central nervous system
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the brain and spinal cord
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somatic nervous system
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
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autonomic nervous system
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the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
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sympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
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parasympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving it's energy
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endocrine system
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the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
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adrenal glands
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a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
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pituitary gland
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the endocrine system's most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, the ___________ _______ regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
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hypothalamus
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endocrine system; a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp.), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
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thyroid gland
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the part of the endocrine system that affects metabolism
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parathyroid
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the part of the endocrine system that helps regulate the level of calcium in the blood
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pancreas
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the part of the endocrine system that helps regulate the level of sugar in the blood
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consciousness
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our awareness of ourselves and our environment
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timing of sleep cycle
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refer to the patterns of shifting through all the sleep stages over the course of the night. We "cycle" through all the sleep stages in about 90 minutes on average
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selective attention
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the focusing of conscious awareness of a particular stimuli
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drug use disorder
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a condition in which the use of one or more substances leads to a clinically significant impairment or distress
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alcohol
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reduced self-awareness and self-control, slowed neural processing, memory disruption, dependence, and expectation effects are all effects of __________
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teratogen
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agents, such as toxins, chemicals, and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
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touch
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this is important to premature babies. It is essential for a preemie's physical and psychological development.
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cognitive theory
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Piaget's ___________ ________ states that children construct their understanding of the world while interacting with it. Their minds experience spurts of change, followed by greater stability as they move from one cognitive plateau to the next.
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theory of moral development
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preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality are the levels of Kohlberg's ________ ___ _______ _______________.
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Preconventional morality
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self interest' obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
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conventional morality
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uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
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postconventional morality
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actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles
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cohabit
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Those who ________ before marriage have a higher rate of divorce and marital dysfunction than those who did not ________. The risk appears greater for those who ________ prior to engagement.
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age
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Numerous biological, psychological, and social cultural factors affect the way we ____. With the right genes, we have a good chance of aging successfully if we maintain a positive outlook and stay mentally and physically active as well as connected to family and friends in the community.
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social learning theory
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the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating any by being rewarded or punished (Girls: "You're being such a good mommy to your dolls, Nicole. Boys: "Big boys don't cry, Alex."
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gender
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the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female
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gender role
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a set of expected behaviors for males or females
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homosexual
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3 percent of men and 1-2 percent of women consider themselves to be _________________.
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primary sex characteristics
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the reproductive organs and external genitalia
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secondary sex characteristics
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breasts and hips in girls, facial hair and deepened voice in boys, pubic and underarm hair in both
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paraphilia
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experiencing sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving non-human objects, the suffering of self or others, and/or non-consenting persons
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Sexual activity
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Increased rates of infection (STDs), increased rates of adolescent pregnancy, increased single parenthood, decreased marital stability, increased maternal and child poverty, increased abortion, increased depression, and decreased happiness are all effects of premature ____________ _______…
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sensation
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The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
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perception
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The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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subliminal
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below one's absolute threshold of conscious awareness
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schema
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The role of a ________ in perception is important. A schema is a mental structure we use to organize and simplify our knowledge of the world around us. We have schemas about ourselves, other people, mechanical devices, food, and in fact almost everything. Schemas can be related to one ano…
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wavelength
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the distance from one light wave to the peak of the next
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amplitude
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The __________ tells you the intensity or brightness of light.
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gestalt
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An organized whole. ________ psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
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figure ground
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the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings
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grouping
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the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
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learning
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the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
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conditioning
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a process of changing behavior by rewarding or punishing a subject each time an action is performed until the subject associates the action with pleasure or distress.
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PSYCH 2310: EXAM 3