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PRE 305: EXAM 2
assimilation |
-under Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory
-using existing schema to interpret what is new
-not always correct: a guinea pig is a cat
-assimilation occurs when they incorporate new objects into the schema
-the process by which people translate incoming information into a form that fits concepts they already understand
|
accomodation |
-under piaget's cognitive developmental theory
-changing your schema in respond to new information
accommodation occurs when the new object doesn't fit the existing schema (you cannot bang eggs because they will break)
-the process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences |
object permanence |
- the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view
-under Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory
-falls under the sensorimotor stage
-develops around 4-8 months of age
-fully developed around 8-9 months of age |
conservation |
-under Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory
-in between preoperational and concrete operational stage (age 7)
-the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not necessarily change other key properties
-conservation of liquid quantity (juice), conservation of solid quantity (clay or playdoh), and conservation of number (quarters spread out or close together), crumbling a cookie
|
deferred imitation |
-under Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory
-under sensorimotor stage
-the repetition of other people's behavior a substantial time after it originally occurred
-sign that infants become able to form enduring mental representations
-example: remembering a playmate's actions from a full day earlier a throwing a similar tantrum
|
centration |
-under Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory
-children in the preoperational stage tend to fail at tasks measuring centration
-the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event
-measured using conservation tasks
-example: insist that men with long hair are women
|
egocentrism |
--under Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory
-under preoperational stage (can't do it in preschool)
-the tendency to perceive the world solely from one's own point of view
-a lack of ability to take the perspective of others
-three mountains task
-egocentric communication (he took it from me-but don't say who he is, start telling a story without telling any of the other people in the story)
|
working memory |
-under information processing theory
-memory system that involves actively attending to, gathering, maintaining, storing, and processing information
-limited in capacity (about 7 pieces of info) and in the length of time it can retain information without updating activities.
-both capacity and speed increase with age and relevant experience
-For example, if after reading a story about birds, a child were asked a question about it, the child would, through working memory, bring together relevant information from the story, inferences made from that information, and prior knowledge about birds, and would then process the information to construct a reasonable answer.
|
long-term memory |
-under information processing theory
-information retained on an enduring basis/knowledge that people accumulate over their lifetime.
-totality of knowledge
-actual knowledge (knowing the capitals of different countries), conceptual knowledge (the concepts of justice, mercy, and equality), procedural knowledge (how to tie a shoe), attitudes (likes and dislikes regarding political parties or anchovies), reasoning strategies (knowing how to take an argument to its logical extreme to show its inadequacy) |
rehersal |
-under information processing theory
-the process of repeating information multiple times to aid memory of it
-Between ages 5 and 8 years, children begin to use a number of broadly useful memory strategies, among them the strategy of rehearsal
|
executive functioning |
-under information processing theory
-higher-level cognitive processes that organize thinking and behavior
-integrates information from working memory and long-term memory to accomplish goals
-elements include attention shifting, self-regulation, and problem solving, inhibiting responses
-increases greatly during the preschool and early elementary school years.
ex: assigned the task of sorting toys by their color for a long period and then are asked to sort the same toys by shape, most 3-year-olds have difficulty switching goals, but 5-year-olds make the switch with ease
-highly predictive of many important life outcomes years later, including academic achievement in later grades, enrollment in college, and income and occupational status during adulthood |
zone of proximal development |
-under Vtgotsky's sociocultural theory
-certain things a learner can do by themselves without help
-certain things a learner can't do on their own but can do with the help of someone more knowledgable
-certain things that can't do even with help
-zone of proximal development=what the learner can achieve with assistance, where learning occurs
-scaffolding occurs through the knowledgable person
-different ways the more competent person can provide support when they are in the proximal zone:
* divide a complex task into smaller parts
* help students to develop plans
* demonstrate correct performance
* ask questions
* keep student motivated
* remind students of goals |
scaffolding |
--under Vtgotsky's sociocultural theory
-a process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children's thinking at a higher level than children could manage on their own |
private speech |
-the second phase of Vygotsky's internalization-of-thought process, in which children develop their self-regulation and problem-solving abilities by telling themselves aloud what to do, much as their parents did in the first stage
-often involves whispers or silent lip movements
-most prevalent between ages 4 and 6 years, although older children and adults also use it on challenging tasks, such as assembling model airplanes or following complex directions
-children generate a considerable amount of overt private speech when they first encounter a challenging task, but the amount lessens as they master it
|
guided participation |
-under Vtgotsky's sociocultural theory
-a process in which more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to learn
-for example, holds one part of the toy so that Sadie can screw in another part. On her own, Sadie would be unable to screw the two parts together and therefore could not improve her skill at the task
-often occurs in situations in which the explicit purpose is to achieve a practical goal, such as assembling a toy, but in which learning occurs as a by-product of the goal-directed activity. |
scaffolding vs. guided participation |
The goal of social scaffolding—to allow children to learn by doing—is the same as that of guided participation, but scaffolding tends to involve more explicit instruction and explanation, whereas guided participation tends to involve adults' organizing tasks so that children can take increasingly active and responsible roles in them. |
joint attention |
-under vtgotsky's sociocultural theory
-a process in which social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
-greatly increases children's ability to learn from other people
ex: Around their first birthday, infants increasingly look toward objects that are the targets of their social partners' gaze, even if the partner is not acting on the objects, When an adult tells a toddler the name of an object, the adult usually looks or points directly at it; children who are looking at the same object are in a better position to learn what the word means than ones who are not
-the degree of success infants have in following other people's gaze predicts their later vocabulary development |
infant directed speech |
-the distinctive mode of speech that adults adopt when talking to babies and very young children
-used by both males and females, including parents and nonparents alike. Indeed, even young children adopt it when talking to babies
-exaggerated speech that is slower and higher pitched with longer pauses between words and more stress on important words
-caregivers can use various pitch patterns of IDS to communicate important information to infants even when infants don't know the meaning of the words uttered
-infants prefer it
-seen across a variety of languages and cultures
-can help to promote and facilitate language learning |
overregularization |
-speech errors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular
-taking a rule and applying it where it doesn't apply
-examples: goed, mans, foots, growed,
|
bootstrapping |
-the strategy of using the grammatical structure of whole sentences to figure out meaning
-context of the word within the sentence |
fast mapping |
- the process of rapidly learning a new word simply from hearing the contrastive use of a familiar and the unfamiliar word
-context of the word with other words
-ex: get the chromium tray, not the red one |
babbling |
-repetitive consonant-vowel sequences ("bababa...") or hand movements (for learners of signed languages) produced during the early phases of language development
-Sometime between 6 and 10 months of age, but on average at around 7 months
|
general intelligence (g) |
-cognitive processes that influence the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks
-intelligence as a single trait |
fluid intelligence |
-the ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems
-intelligence as multiple abilities
-drawing inferences and understanding relations between concepts that have not been encountered previously
-closely related to adaptation to novel tasks, speed of information processing, working-memory functioning, and ability to control attention |
crystallized intelligence |
-factual knowledge about the world
-knowledge of word meanings, state capitals, answers to arithmetic problems
-reflects long-term memory for prior experiences
-closely related to verbal ability. |
IQ |
-quantitative measure, typically with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, used to indicate a child's intelligence relative to that of other children of the same age
|
Flynn Effect |
-consistent rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the past 80 years in many countries |
range of reaction |
- your genetic background sets a certain range that your ultimate IQ is going to fall into
- your environment, home and school, determine where it falls within that range
|
giftedness |
-elements of giftedness: high intellectual ability, talent, creativity
-divergent thinking test: given circles and are asked to create as many pictures as they can |
dyslexia |
-inability to read and spell well despite having normal intelligence |
comprehension monitoring |
-process of keeping track of one's understanding of a verbal description or text
-With age and experience, readers increasingly monitor their ongoing understanding and reread passages they do not understand
-differentiates good readers from poor ones at all ages
-nstructional approaches that focus on comprehension monitoring and other metacognitive skills, such as anticipating questions that a teacher might ask about the material, improve reading comprehension
|
phonemic awareness |
-ability to identify component sounds within words
-both correlated with later reading achievement and a cause of it.
-the strongest predictor of their ability to sound out and spell words in the early grades—stronger even than IQ score or social-class background
-natural exposure can come from nursery rhymes |
vicarious reinforcement |
-under social learning theory
-observing someone else receive a reward or punishment
-bobo doll experiment
|
self-efficacy |
-under social learning theory
-an individual's beliefs about how effectively he or she can control his or her own behavior, thoughts, and emotions in order to achieve a desired goal
-if we believe we can do something, we tend to be more successful with it, put in more effort, try harder and longer, etc
-two people with same IQ-if one has more self-efficacy, they tend to be more successful
-have self-efficacy for different things-low for math or high for reading, etc |
PIAGET: Lasting impact |
-best-known cognitive developmental theory
-observations and descriptions vividly convey the texture of children's thinking at different ages.
-exceptional breadth of the theory
-offers an intuitively plausible depiction of the interaction of nature and nurture in cognitive development, as well as of the continuities and discontinuities that characterize intellectual growth.
-provides a good overview of children's thinking at different points in development
-covers the entire age span from infancy through adolescence. |
PIAGET: major tenets |
-view of children's nature: mentally active as well as physically active from the moment of birth, and that their activity greatly contributes to their own development
-constructivist: depicts children as constructing knowledge for themselves in response to their experiences
-child as a scientist: generating hypotheses, performing experiments, and drawing conclusions from their observations
-children learn many important lessons on their own, rather than depending on instruction from adults or older children.
-nature and nurture interact to produce cognitive development
-development through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium
-children are intrinsically motivated to learn and do not need rewards from other people to do so.
--stages that represent a discontinuous intellectual leap from one coherent way of understanding the world to the next, higher one
-children progress through qualitatively distinct, broadly applicable stages, separated only by brief transition periods. |
sensorimotor stage |
-birth to age 2
-understanding the world through senses and physically interacting with objects
-intelligence is expressed through sensory and motor abilities
-development of object permanence, mental representation,
|
preoperational stage |
-age 2 to 7
-children become able to represent their experiences in language, mental imagery, and symbolic thought
-limitations: rigid thinking, centration, egocentrism, don't have conservation
|
concrete operational stage |
-age 7 to 12
-children become able to reason logically about concrete objects and events
-understand reversibility and conservation
limitations: abstract thinking not present yet, not able to think hypothetically |
formal operational stage |
-age 12 and up
-people become able to think about abstractions and hypothetical situations
-application of logical mental operations to abstract problems and questions (justice)
-scientific reasoning
-argued that getting to this final stage that this had more to do with formal schooling than the other stages and that the other stages were about the brain and exploring the world |
Information-processing theory: Major tenets |
-a class of theories that focus on the structure of the cognitive system and the mental activities used to deploy attention and memory to solve problems
-focuses on how we learn and attention and memory in those learning processes
-emphasis on thinking as an activity that occurs over time.
-view of children's nature: see children's cognitive growth as occurring continuously, in small increments that occur at different times on different tasks.
-children are active problem solvers
-children's cognitive flexibility helps them pursue their goals.
-examine how nature and nurture work together to produce development and how development change occurs |
information-processing theory: imporantce |
identifies what those mental operations are, the order in which they are executed, and how increasing speed and accuracy of mental operations lead to cognitive growth. |
sociocultural theories: Major tenets |
-approaches that emphasize that other people and the surrounding culture contribute greatly to children's development
-emphasize that much of cognitive development takes place through direct interactions between children and other people
-children portrayed them as social learners
-viewed language and thought as integrally related.
-children as teachers and learners
-children are products of their culture: the content children learn vary greatly from culture to culture and shape thinking accordingly.
|
sociocultural: importance |
-can help us appreciate the many aspects of culture embodied in even the smallest everyday interactions.
|
piaget vs. vtgotsky |
-piaget empasizes children's own efforts to understand the world, sociocultural theories emphasize the developmental importance of children's interactions with other people.
-little scientists vs social learners
-piaget viewed children intent on mastering physical, mathematical, and logical concepts that are the same in all times and places, Vygotsky viewed them as intent on participating in activities that happen to be prevalent in their local setting.
-Piaget emphasized qualitative changes in thinking, Vygotsky emphasized continuous, quantitative changes. |
dynamic systems theory: major tenets |
-a class of theories that focus on how change occurs over time in complex systems
-thinking would be pointless without motor capabilities
-outcome based and looks at the success, efficiency, and novelty of an approach/strategy to affect that change.
-depict development as a process in which change is the only constant.
-depict each child as a well-integrated system, in which many subsystems—perception, action, attention, memory, language, social interaction, and so on—work together to determine behavior.
-emphasize children's innate motivation to explore the environment
-emphasize precise analyses of problem-solving activity
-emphasize the formative influence of other people
-children are strongly motivated to learn about the world around them and to explore and expand their own capabilities
-emphasize infants' interest in the social world as a crucial motivator of development.
-emphasize that actions contribute to development throughout life.
-concerned with how the cognitive system organizes itself and how it changes. |
dynamic systems theory: importance |
unique in their emphasis on how children's actions shape their development, as well as in the range of developmental influences they consider with regard to particular capabilities. |
freud's theory of psychosexual development: major tenets |
- behavior is motivated by the need to satisfy basic drives. These drives, and the motives that arise from them, are mostly unconscious, and individuals often have only the dimmest understanding of why they do what they do.
-emphasizing that children's early experiences have a major impact on their subsequent development.
-even very young children have a sexual nature that motivates their behavior and influences their relationships with other people
-balance between desire for gratification and meeting demands of society-id, ego, and superego
-psychosexual stages: as we grow, one of the big things that changes is the source of sexual gratification
-If fundamental needs are not met during any of the stages of psychosexual development, children may become fixated on those needs, continually attempting to satisfy them and to resolve associated conflicts |
freud: lasting and importance |
-Freud's contributions to developmental psychology were his emphasis on the importance of early experience and emotional relationships and his recognition of the role of subjective experience and unconscious mental activity
-Freud's emphasis on the importance of early experience and close relationships was especially influential in setting the foundation for modern-day attachment theory and research
- Freud's remarkable insight that much of our mental life occurs outside the realm of consciousness is fundamental to modern cognitive psychology and brain science.. |
erikson's theory of psychosocial development: Major tenets |
-accepted the basic elements of Freud's theory but incorporated social factors into it
-development is driven by a series of developmental crises related to age and biological maturation. To achieve healthy development, the individual must successfully resolve these crises.
-emphasizing that children's early experiences have a major impact on their subsequent development.
-eight age-related stages of development that span infancy to old age.
-If the dominant issue of a given stage is not successfully resolved before the onset of the next stage, the person will continue to struggle with it.
-development continues throughout the lifespan, not just childhood or adolescence
-identity as an important construct
-importance of parents being sensitive and responsive
-more positive view of development
|
erikson: lasting |
Erikson's emphasis on the quest for identity in adolescence has had a lasting impact, providing the foundation for a wealth of research on this aspect of adolescence. |
learning theories |
-emphasized the role of external factors in shaping personality and social behavior
-emphasize continuity, proposing that the same principles control learning and behavior throughout life and that therefore there are no qualitatively different stages in development
-focus on the role of specific mechanisms of change
--children become different from one another primarily because they have different histories of reinforcement and learning opportunities. |
learning theories: behaviorism |
-learning as a behavioral change
-learners as "blank slates" shaped by the environment
-children's development is determined by their social environment and that learning through conditioning is the primary mechanism of development
-psychologists should study only objectively verifiable behavior, not the "mind." |
behaviorism importance and lastin |
-laid the foundation for treatment procedures that are based on the opposite process—the deconditioning, or elimination, of fear. still widely used to rid people of fears and phobias of everything from dogs to dentists. |
learning theories: operant conditioning |
-we tend to repeat behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes and suppress those that result in unfavorable outcomes
-learning (behavioral change) occurs due to the consequences of behavior
-using psychology as a way to modify behavior |
operant condition importance and impact |
-led to many discoveries, including two that are of particular interest to parents and teachers. One is the fact that attention can by itself serve as a powerful reinforcer: children often do things "just to get attention
-the great difficulty of extinguishing behavior that has been intermittently reinforced, that is, that has sometimes been followed by reward and sometimes not.
-ed to a form of therapy known as behavior modification, which has proven quite useful for changing undesirable behaviors. |
learning theories: social learning theory |
-emphasizes observation and imitation, rather than reinforcement, as the primary mechanisms of development
-argued that most human learning is inherently social in nature and is based on observation of the behavior of other people.
- Children learn rapidly and efficiently simply from watching what other people do and then imitating them. --Although direct reinforcement can increase the likelihood of imitation, it is not necessary for learning.
-Children can learn from symbolic models, that is, from reading books and from watching TV or movies, in the absence of any reinforcement for their behavior
-emphasized the active role of children in their own development
-emphasized importance of self-efficacy
|
social cognition theories |
-emphasize the process of self-socialization—children's active shaping of their own development.
-children's knowledge and beliefs about themselves and other people lead them to adopt particular goals and standards to guide their own behavior.
|
ecological theories |
-view children as inheritors of genetically based abilities and predispositions.
-The focus of these theories is largely on aspects of behavior that serve, or once served, an adaptive function.
-stresses the effects of context on development, but it also emphasizes the child's active role in selecting and influencing those contexts.
-Children's personal characteristics—temperament, intellectual ability, athletic skill, and so on—lead them to choose certain environments over others, and also influence the people around them.
|
egological theories: ethology |
-look at studying the behavior of animals and using that understanding to generalize our understanding
=ttempts to understand behavior in terms of its adaptive or survival value
=One of the most influential applications of ethology to human development is the extension of the concept of imprinting to the process by which infants form emotional attachments to their mother
-importance of looking at both biological factors and environmental or social context (biological predisposition for looking around after they hatch, social piece of will imprint on whatever is around) |
egological theories:evolutionary psychology |
-focuses on the role human evolution plays on what we currently see in peoples thinking and behavior
-argue that if there is a particular behavior or way of thinking seen across lots and lots of different cultures that suggest that there is something that evolved or was genetically predisposed
- in the evolutionary history of our species, certain genes predisposed individuals to behave in ways that solved the adaptive challenges they faced thereby increasing the likelihood that they would survive, mate, and reproduce, passing along their genes to their offspring. These adaptive genes became increasingly common and were passed down to modern humans; thus, many of the ways we behave today are a legacy from our prehistoric ancestors
-importance of play in development
-radical departures from the species-typical environment could have negative consequences. |
bronfenbrenner's ecological model |
* about the influence of culture and the cultural context on the individual child
* about the idea that we have different levels of influence that impact the child either directly or indirectly
* different levels of influence can sometimes interact with each other
* individual child
* people/environments/contexts the child interacts with directly (family, school, church, neighborhood)
* less direct-media,
-every level, from the intimate context of a child's nuclear family to the general culture in which the family lives, has an impact on that child's development.
|
social learning theory qualities of teacher, student, educational practices |
* desirable qualities of teacher
* effective model
* modeling of desirable behaviors, attitudes, and cognitions
* desirable qualities of student
* attention to teachers and other models
* motivation and self-efficacy
* preferred education practices
* teaching modeling of problem solving strategies
* role models
* peer tutoring programs
* promoting self-efficacy |
vtgotsky's sociocultural desirable qualities of student, teacher, educational practices |
* knowledge of cultural tools
* awareness of children's developmental and potential levels
* ability to present instructional activities within the learner's zone of proximal development
* desirable qualities of student
* cultural awareness
* collaboration
* in the classroom
* educational applications
* collaborative learning
* authentic actives-similar to outside world
* dynamic assessment
* shouldn't just look at what they can do on their on, but with different kinds of supports
* communities of learners
* service learning |
Why do older children perform better on memory tasks than younger children? |
-older children have more knowledge than younger children, more crystallized intelligence
-older children are aware of memory strategies |
What influences intelligence? |
-genetics
-home environment: the more cognitively stimulating the environment is, the more books in the home
* true even once you take genetic factors into account
-schooling: people who are exposed to formal schooling do better
- range of reaction
|
What are the outcomes associated with higher or lower measured intelligence? |
-IQ scores predict grades and academic achievement
-children with higher IQs tend to learn new material more quickly than children with lower IQs
-higher IQ scores more likely to go to college and graduate
|
What are the cognitive and environmental factors that promote language learning for young children? |
-exposure to language: in order to learn a language, you need to be exposed to it
-infant directed speech
-earlier it occurs, the easier it is (for 2nd language) |