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PPE 3003: FINAL EXAM
Skinner's theory of personality is based largely on |
his behavioral analysis of rats and pigeons |
Examples of internal states
|
thinking and feeling |
What can not be used as explanations of behavior |
Internal states |
What kind of behavior can be studied by the scientist |
Overt behaviors |
Human behavior is shaped by 3 forces: |
1) the individual's personal history of reinforcement
2) Natural selection
3) Evolution of cultural practices |
Operant Conditioning |
process of changing behavior in which reinforcement (or punishment) is contingent on the occurrence of a particular behavior. |
Positive reinforcer |
any event that, when added to a situation, increases the probability that a given behavior will occur |
Negative reinforcer |
any aversive stimulus that, when removed from the environment, increases the probability of the behavior. |
Skinner identified 2 types of punishment: |
1) The presentation of an aversive stimulus
2) Removal of a positive stimulus |
Reinforcement can be either: |
continuous or intermittent |
What type of schedule is more efficient |
Intermittent |
The 4 principal intermittent schedules: |
1) Fixed-ratio
2) Fixed-interval
3)Variable-ratio
4) Variable-interval |
Social Control is achieved through |
1) operant conditioning
2) describing the contingencies of reinforcement
3) depriving or satiating a person
4) physically restraining an individual |
People can control their own behavior through |
self control |
All control rests with |
the environment and not free will |
How are unhealthy behavior learned? |
The same way as all other behaviors, that is mostly through operant conditioning |
To change unhealthy behaviors, behavior therapists use a variety of |
behavior modification techniques, all of which are based on the principles of operant conditioning |
Observational learning |
allows people to learn without performing a behavior |
Observational learning requires |
1) Attention to a model
2) organization and retention of observations
3) behavioral production
4) motivation to perform the modeled behavior |
Enactive learning |
takes place when our responses produce consequences |
Human functioning is a product of |
mutual interaction of environmental events, behaviors, and personal factors (Triadic Reciprocal Causation) |
Triadic reciprocal causation |
Mutual interaction of environmental events, behaviors and personal factors |
2 Important environmental factors that influence people's lives in unplanned and unexpected ways: |
1) chance encounters
2) fortuitous events |
Human agency |
People can and do exercise a measure of control over their lives |
Self-efficacy |
People's belief that they are capable of performing those behaviors that can produce desired outcomes in a particular situation |
Proxy agency |
Occurs when people have the capacity to rely on others for goods and services |
Collective efficacy |
Refers to the confidence that groups of people have that their combined efforts will produce social change. |
External factors |
provide us with standards for evaluating our behavior as well as external reinforcement in the form of rewards received from others |
Internal factors in self regulation include: |
1) self-observation
2) judgmental processes
3) self-reaction |
People can separate themselves form the injurious consequences of their actions through |
Selective activation and disengagement of internal control |
4 principal techniques of selective activation and disengagement of internal control are: |
1) redefining behavior
2) displacing or diffusing responsibility
3) disregarding or distorting the consequences of behavior
4) dehumanizing or blaming the victims
|
Dysfunctional behaviors |
Depression, phobias and aggression |
Dysfunctional behaviors are acquired through |
The reciprocal interaction of environment, personal factors and behavior |
Social cognitive therapy emphasizes |
cognitive mediation, especially perceived self-efficacy |
The cognitive social learning theories of both Rotter and Mischel attempt to: |
synthesize the strengths of reinforcement theory with those of cognitive theory |
According to Rotter, people's behavior in a specific situation is a function of their |
expectations of reinforcements and the strength of the needs satisfied by those reinforcements |
In specific situations, behavior is estimated by: |
the basic prediction formula that suggests that the potential for a given behavior to occur is a function of the person's expectancy plus the value of their reinforcement. |
Basic prediction formula |
The potential for a given behavior to occur is a function of the person's expectancy plus the value of the reinforcement. |
General prediction formula |
states that need potential is a function of freedom of movement and need value. |
Need potential |
the possible occurrence of a set of functionally related behaviors directed toward the satisfaction of a goal or a similar set of goals. |
Freedom of movement |
The average expectancy that a set of related behaviors will be reinforced. |
Need value |
The degree to which a person prefers one set of reinforcement to another. |
In many situation, people develop generalized expectancies for success because |
a similar set of experiences has been previously reinforced. |
Locus of control |
A generalized expectancy that refers to people's belief that they can or cannot control their lives
|
Interpersonal Trust |
A generalized expectancy that the word of another is reliable |
Maladaptive behavior |
refers to those actions that fail to move a person closer to a desired goal |
Rotter's method of psychotherapy aims towards: |
changing goals and eliminating low expectancies |
Mischel's cognitive-active personality system (CAPS) suggests that |
people's behavior is largely shaped by an interaction of stable personality traits and the situation, which include a number of personal variables. |
Personal dispositions |
have some consistency over time but little consistency form one situation to another. |
Relatively stable personality dispositions interact with |
cognitive-affective units to produce behavior. |
Cognitive-affect units include |
1) people's encoding strategies
2) their competencies and self-regulatory plans
3) their expectancies and beliefs about the perceived consequences of their actions
4) their goals and valeus;
5) their affective responses. |
Encoding strategies |
Way of constructing and categorizing information |
Competencies and self-regulatory plans |
What they can do and their strategies for doing it |
Basic to Kelly's theory is the idea of |
Constructive alternativism or the notion that our present interpretations are subject to change |
Kelly's basic postulate assumes that all psychological processes |
are directed by the ways in which we anticipate events |
How many corollaries derive from and elaborate Kelly's fundamental postulate? |
11 |
Construction corollary |
assumes that people anticipate future events according to their interpretations of recurrent themes. |
Individuality corollary |
states that people have different experiences and therefore construe events in different ways
|
Organization corollary |
hols that people organize their personal constructs in a hierarchical system, with some constructs in superordinate positions and others subordinate to them. |
This organization allows people to minimize incompatible constructs
|
Organization corollary |
Kelly's dichotomy corollary presumes that all personal constructs are |
dichotomous |
Dichotomous |
People construe events in an either-or manner |
Kelly's choice corollary |
states that people choose the alternative in a dichotomized construct that they see as extending their range of future choices. |
Range corollary |
assumes that constructs are limited to a particular range of convenience, that is they are not relevant to all situations. |
Experience corollary |
holds that people continually revise their personal constructs as the result of experience |
Modulation corollary
|
maintains that some new experiences do not lead to a revision of personal constructs because |
Fragmentation corollary |
recognizes that people's behavior are sometimes inconsistent because their construct system can readily admit incompatible elements. |
Commodality corollary |
states that, to the extent that we have had experiences simliar to other people's experiences, our personal constructs tend to be similar to the construction systems of those people |
Sociality corollary |
states that people are able to communicate with other people because they can construe other people's constructions. |
Not only do people observe they behavior of other people but they also |
interpret what that behavior means to that person |
Fixed-role therapy |
calls for clients to act out predetermined roles continuously until their peripheral and core roles change as significant other begin reacting differently to them. |
The purpose of Kelly's Rep Test |
is to discover ways in which people construe important people in their lives |
Skinner: Behavioral Analysis
|
emerged from lab studies of animals and humans |
Skinner: Behavioral Analysis |
minimized speculation |
Skinner: Behavioral Analysis |
focused on observable behavior |
Skinner: Behavioral Analysis |
avoided all hypothetical constructs |
Skinner: Behavioral Analysis |
behavior is lawfully determined |
Skinner: Behavioral Analysis |
behavior is product of environmental stimuli |
Scientific Behaviorism: Philosophy of science |
scientific behaviorism allows for interpretation of behavior, not an explanation of its causes
|
Scientific behaviorism: characteristics of science |
cumulative, an attitude that values empirical observation, science is a search for order and lawful relationships. |
Classical conditioning |
a response is drawn out of the organism by a specific identifiable stimulus.
Behavior is ELICITED from the organism. |
Classical conditioning |
A neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus a number of times until it is capable of bringing about a previously unconditioned response. |
Operant conditioning: shaping |
procedure in which the experimenter, or the environment, first rewards gross approximations of the behavior then closer approximations and finally the desired behavior itself.
|
Shaping |
through the reinforcement of successive approximations, the experimenter shapes the final set of complex behaviors. |
What 3 conditions are present in shaping |
1) the antecedent
2) the behavior
3) the consequence |
2 effects of Reinforcement |
1) strengthens the behavior
2) rewards the person |
2 types of reinforcement |
1) positive
2) negative |
Punishment |
the presentation of a aversive stimulus |
Primary reinforcers |
stimuli that are by their nature satisfying |
conditioned reinforcers |
environmental stimuli that are not by nature satisfying but become so because they are associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers |
generalized reinforcers |
associated with more than one primary reinforcer |
continuous schedule of reinforcement |
reinforcement for every response |
intermittent schedule of reinforcement |
1) fixed ratio
2) fixed interval
3) variable ratio
4) variable interval |
Extinction |
tendency of a previously acquired response to become progressively weakened upon nonreinforcement |
natural selection |
as a species, our behavior is shaped by the contingencies of survival; that is those behaviors that were beneficial to the human species tended to survive, whereas those that did not tended to drop out. |
cultural evolution |
those societies that evolved certain cultural practices tended to survive
(tool making and language) |
The human organism: inner states |
1) self awareness
2) drives
3) emotions
4) purpose and intention |
self awareness |
humans are aware of their consciousness, of themselves as part of the environment and as observing external stimuli |
Drives |
the effects of deprivation and satiation and the corresponding probability that the organism will respond |
emotions |
behavior is not attributed to emotions |
purpose and intention |
behavior is not attributed to this. |
Complex behavior |
1) higher mental processes
2) creativity
3) unconscious dreams
4) dreams
5) social behavior |
higher mental processes |
thinking, problem solving, and reminiscing |
creativity |
compared with natural selection - mutation |
unconscious behavior |
nearly all behavior is unconsciously motivated |
dreams |
covert and symbolic forms of behavior that are subject to the same contingencies of reinforcement as other behaviors are. |
social behavior |
groups do not behave, only individuals behave. |
Why do individuals establish groups? |
they have been rewarded for doing so |
control of human behavior |
social control and self control |
social control |
1. operant conditioning
2. describing contingencies (or using language to inform people of the consequence of their behavior)
3. deprivation and satiation (techniques that increase the likelihood that people will behave in a certain way.)
4. physical restraint (jail) |
self control |
1) physical restraint
2) physical aids (tools)
3) changing environmental stimuli
4) arranging the environment to allow escape from aversive stimuli
5) drugs
6) doing something else |
The unhealthy personality: counteracting strategies |
escape
revolt
passive resistance |
Unhealthy personality: inappropriate behaviors |
excessively vigorous behavior
excessively restrained behavior
blocking out reality
self deluding responses
self punishment
|
Skinner: psychotherapy |
molds desirable behavior by reinforcing slightly improved changes in behavior.
therapists play active role in the treatment process, using behavior modification techniques and pointing out the positive and consequences of some behaviors and the aversive effects of others. |