102 Cards in this Set
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Define genome.
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All of our genes, our genetic makeup (20,000-30,000 genes)
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Describe the hierarchy in the genome.
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Genome>chromosomes>genes>DNA
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Differentiate genotype and phenotype.
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-Genotype is the unobservable genetic makeup
-phenotype is the physical characteristics
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Define behavioral genetics. What are the controversies surrounding behavioral genetics?
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-Behavioral geneticists look at what degree individual differences are due to genetic & environmental factors.
-Controversy: Eugenics and genetic determinism (the idea that genes dictate behavior when in reality genes and environment interact to produce behavior)
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What does the heritability estimate examine?
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What percentage of the trait variation is due to genes and what percentage is do to environmental factors
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What are the three major questions asked by behavioral geneticists?
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1. What causes variability in a trait (genes vs. environment)?
2. Which environmental effects are important? (e.g., parents, teachers, peers)
3. How do genes and environment interact?
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What is heritability?
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How much an individual difference is explained by genetics.
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True or false: Heritability is NOT constant/unchangeable.
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True, heritability only applies to a population at one point in time. The more similar the environment between people, the higher heritability will be.
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What is environmentality?
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How much an individual difference is explained by the environment
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Discuss three misconceptions about heritability.
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1. Heritability cannot be applied to a single person (A single individual's height, for example, is not 10% due to their environment. It is more accurate to say that the variation between people in height is 10% due to the environment)
2. Heritability is not constant/unchangeable
3. He…
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List and define the four methods used in behavioral genetics. Discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of each method.
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1. Selective breeding (maximize certain trait by having individual with the trait breed with other individuals to produce offspring with desired trait)
2. Family studies (correlates genetic similarity w/ personality similarity)
3. Twin studies (measure the contribution of genetics (as …
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What is the problem with family studies?
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Ignores that similarity could be due to environment. Family studies are never definitive.
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Differentiate monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
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Monozygotic twins
-Share a single fertilized egg (a single zygote = monozygotic)
-Share 100% of their genes!
Dizygotic twins
-Come from two separately fertilized eggs (two zygotes = dizygotic)
-Share about 50% of their genes
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Compute the heritability estimate if I give you the correlations for monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
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Neuroticism
DZ twins - correlated at .18
MZ twins - correlated at .41
Heritability = Multiply the Difference in correlation by 2
Heritability = 2(.41-.18)
Heritability = 2(.23) = .46
Heritability = 46%
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What is the problem with twin studies?
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Twins often share the same environment and researchers assume equal environments
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What is the equal environments assumption?
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Environment experienced by identical twins are no more similar than environments shared by fraternal twins
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What is representativeness in regard to adoption studies?
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The assumption that adopted children and their adoptive and genetic parents are representative of the general population.
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What is selective placement?
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Placing adopted children with parents similar to their biological parents in terms of socioeconomics and education. The selective placement of adopted children can be problematic for personality studies.
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What is nonadditive genetic variance?
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results from interactions between genes; you can't just add things together and expect them to have this proportional outcome
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What does the ideal type of study entail?
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Twins reared apart combines the strengths of twins and adoption studies but it is rare to find twins reared apart.
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Describe the heritability estimates of extraversion, neuroticism, drinking, and alcoholism and know which two traits of the Big Five have been shown to be the most heritable.
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Drinking (36%-56%)
Alcoholism (50%-71%)
Extraversion (40%-60% heritable)
Neuroticism (30%-54% heritable)
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Know that any phenotypic variance not accounted for by genetics is accounted for by the environment (e.g. if height is 90% heritable, 10% of the variance is due to the environment)
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Studies that show moderate heritability also hint at importance of environmental influences.
Personality characteristics:
-Heritability of 30-50%
-Environment = 50-70% of phenotypic variation
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Differentiate shared and non-shared environments.
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-Shared: environment siblings share
-Nonshared: environment siblings do not share
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Define and recognize examples of an environment-genetic interaction.
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People with different genes show different behaviors in the same environments
Ex: Effect of noise on performance
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List the three types of genotype-environment correlations.
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1. Passive
2. Reactive
3. Active
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Define passive G.E.C. and provide an example.
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Parents provide both genes and environment, yet children do nothing to obtain that environment.
Ex: Parents verbal ability is determined by genes and will also influence the number of books in the house which will influence the offspring's verbal ability.
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Define reactive G.E.C. and provide an example.
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Parents responses differ depending on child genotype.
Ex: Genes>baby responds positively to being held>baby is held more
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Define active G.E.C. and provide an example.
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People with particular genotypes seek out particular environments
Ex: motorcycle stunts=sensation seeking>drugs and skydiving
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Identify positive and negative genotype-environment correlations.
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Positive = environment encourages the genetically influenced behavior
Negative = environment discourages the genetically influenced behavior
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Define molecular genetics.
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Goal: identify specific genes associated with personality traits
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How is the D4DR gene thought to influence risk-taking and novelty seeking?
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People with long D4DR genes are relatively unresponsive to dopamine so individuals desire more novelty seeking.
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List the key physiological measures used by modern personality researchers.
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1. Electrodermal activity-electric charge from sweat
2. Cardiovascular activity- heart rate/blood pressure
3. Biochemical measures- saliva to measure immune
4. Brain activity- electrodes in brain in EEG
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Explain how measures of electrodermal activity is used to measure sympathetic nervous system activity.
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Skin conductance: Mild electrical current transferred across skin
(More sweat with arousal --> more conductance of electricity across skin)
Measures responses to:
-Sudden noises
-Emotional pictures
-Anxiety
-Fear
-Absence of stimuli
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What are some of the personality traits associated with spontaneous electrodermal activity?
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Neuroticism is associated with spontaneous electrodermal activity because neurotic individuals might be constantly thinking about things that make them nervous or anxious even in the absence of a stimuli.
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The cardiovascular activity measures ___________.
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heart rate
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Explain how the chemical analyses of blood and saliva can be used by personality researchers.
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Measures the presence of hormones in saliva such as cortisol (stress) and testosterone (aggression)
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Brain activity is measured by ______ and _______.
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fMRI and EEG
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Describe Eysenck's original and revised theories about individual differences in extraversion-introversion.
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Theorized that introverts had higher baseline levels of activity in the brain's ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) than extraverts. Due to low levels of ARAS activity (cortical arousal), extraverts seek out stimulation.
According to his revised theory, introverts are more react…
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Describe Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, including a discussion of how Gray's theory is similar to and different from Eysenck's theory.
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BIS- behavioral inhibition system (biological component sensitive to punishment)
BAS- behavioral activation system (biological component sensitive to rewards)
People differ in baseline levels of BIS and BAS. Some more sensitive to reward, some more sensitive to punishment.
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Stronger BAS (relative to BIS) can lead to __________.
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impulsivity
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Stronger BIS (relative to BAS) can lead to high levels of _________.
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anxiety
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Discuss recent research and theory on the relationships between neurotransmitters and personality traits including Cloninger's Tridimensional Model of personality.
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low Dopamine leads to novelty seeking
low Norepinephrine leads to reward dependence
abnormal levels of serotonin leads to harm avoidance
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Low levels of dopamine=
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increased novelty seeking
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Low levels of norepinephrine=
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reward dependance
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Abnormal levels of serotonin=
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harm avoidance (high scorers on harm avoidance are shy and cautious, while low scorers are energetic and optimistic)
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Describe the personality dimension of morningness-eveningness, and discuss identified relationships of this dimension with circadian rhythms.
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-People differ in their circadian rhythms
-Studied by "free running" (observing people's daily behaviors with no time cues)
-Focus on peak body temperature
-People with shorter rhythms tend to be morning persons, people with longer rhythms tend to be evening persons
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Discuss the identified relationships between brain asymmetry and personality traits.
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Eyes drifting to the right=left-side activation, more susceptibility to positive emotions
Eyes drifting to the left=right-side activation, more susceptibility to negative emotions
Practicing mindfulness can help those susceptible to negative thoughts and emotions
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What does survival of the fittest mean?
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If an animal is fit, it is best equipped to survive to reproductive age and reproduce.
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How does natural selection work? How is sexual selection different from natural selection?
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-Natural Selection: the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring
-Sexual Selection: even if a trait threatens survival, it will be selected for as long as it helps reproduction
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What is the difference between intrasexual competition and intersexual selection?
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-Intrasexual competition: Members of the same sex COMPETE with rivals for access to mates
-Intersexual selection: Members of one sex CHOOSE a mate based on their preferences
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What is inclusive fitness? Who would inclusive fitness predict we would save in an emergency?
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We share genes with others (family). If we help family to survive and reproduce, shared genes will get copied. Predicts who we save in an emergency.
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What are the three kinds of products of evolution? Be able to describe and recognize examples of each.
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1. Adaptations
2. By-products
3. Random noise
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Define adaptation. Give an example.
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Features "selected for" by evolution
-For something to be an adaptation it has to:
1. Deal with adaptive problem - something that impedes survival or reproduction
2. Have some genetic basis (e.g. giraffe's long necks)
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Define by-product. Give an example.
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Side effects of adaptations
-Not considered to be adaptations themselves
-Ex: Belly button
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Define random noise. Give an example.
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Feature that doesn't affect reproduction
-E.g., shape of the earlobe
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Know the difference between proximate and ultimate explanations for behavior and be able to recognize examples of each.
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Proximate: Why does it happen here and now?
Ultimate: Why does it happen at all?
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Be able to recognize an evolutionary explanation for the need to belong, helping, and universal emotions.
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-Need to Belong: b/c feeling rejected sucks (proximate), lack of belonging used to lead to death (ultimate)
-Helping: makes us feel good
-Universal Emotions: identify how people are feeling easily
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Know the results of Clark and Hatfield's (1989) study showing differences in willingness to have sex with a stranger.
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Men were more likely to say yes to sex while no women said yes to sex. About half of each gender said yes to a date.
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Define sociosexual orientation.
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the individual difference in the willingness to engage in sexual activity outside of a committed relationship
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Describe the difference between unrestricted and restricted sociosexual orientations.
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-Restricted: individuals are less willing to engage in casual sex; they prefer greater love, commitment and emotional closeness before having sex with romantic partners
-Unrestricted: individuals are more willing to have casual sex and are more comfortable engaging in sex without love, …
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Describe sex differences in jealousy and be able to describe the primary theory that explains these differences.
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Jealousy: men more upset by sexual infidelity and women are more upset by emotional infidelity
(sexual vs. emotional)
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What is the parental investment theory?
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Any parental expenditure (time, energy, etc.) that benefits one offspring at a cost to parents' ability to invest in other components of fitness, and is thus a form of sexual selection
-Best for man: Short term mate
-Best for woman: Long term mate
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From what we discussed in class, be able to list some evolutionary-based tendencies that are not adaptive in our current environment.
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-Fatty sugary foods
-Distrust of outsiders
-Fear of cars
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What are the three parts of the human mind?
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1. Conscious
2. Preconscious
3. Unconscious
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__________ contains thoughts, feelings, and images about which you are presently aware.
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conscious
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___________ contains information you are not presently thinking about, but can be easily retrieved and made conscious.
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preconscious
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The __________ is the largest part of the human mind and holds the thoughts and memories about which a person is unaware.
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unconscious
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Describe and be able to identify examples of the three components of human personality.
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1. Ego
2. Id
3. Superego
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Describe and be able to identify examples of the three types of anxiety.
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1. objective
2. neurotic
3. moral
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__________ anxiety occurs in response to real, external threat to a person.
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objective
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__________ anxiety occurs when there is direct conflict between id and ego.
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neurotic
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________ anxiety is caused by conflict between ego and superego.
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moral
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Identify the 7 different types of defense mechanisms.
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1. repression
2. denial
3. sublimation
4. projections
5. reaction formation
6. displacement
7. rationalization
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Preventing thoughts from reaching awareness is called ___________.
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repression
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Refusing to see the facts is referred to as ________.
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denial
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Redirecting impulses from the original to a non-threatening target is referred to as __________.
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displacement
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Generating acceptable reasons for socially acceptable behavior is called _________.
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rationalization
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Displaying behavior that indicates the opposite impulse is called _________.
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reaction formation
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Projecting unacceptable qualities onto others is referred to as _________.
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projection
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Channeling unacceptable instincts into socially desired activities is referred to as _________.
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sublimation
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What are Freud's five-stages of psychosexual development?
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1. Oral stage (birth to 18 months)
2. Anal stage (18 months to 3 years)
3. Phallic stage (3 to 5 years)
4. Latency stage (six years to puberty)
5. Genital stage (puberty thru adulthood)
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Discuss the key challenges and conflicts of the oral stage.
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Main sources of pleasure and tension reduction are the mouth, lips, and tongue. Key conflict is weaning—withdrawing from the breast or bottle.
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Discuss the key challenges and conflicts of the anal stage.
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Child obtains pleasure from first expelling feces and then, during toilet training, from retaining feces. Many conflicts arise around the child's ability to achieve self-control.
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Discuss the key challenges and conflicts of the phallic stage.
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Child discovers he has (or that she doesn't have) a penis. Sexual desire directed toward the parent of opposite sex
(Produces Oedipal and Electra conflicts- Unconscious wish to have opposite-sex parent all to self by eliminating the same-sex parent)
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Discuss the key challenges and conflicts of the latency stage.
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Little psychological development occurs during this stage. Focus of child is on learning skills and abilities necessary to succeed as adult.
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Discuss the key challenges and conflicts of the genital stage.
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Libido is focused on the genitals. Not accompanied by a specific conflict. Only reach this stage if resolved conflicts at earlier stages.
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Discuss ego psychology.
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Shift in focus from id to ego, introduced by Erikson. Believed ego was driving factor of personality because it is the decision maker. Primary goal is to establish identity.
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Discuss each of Erikson's eight stages of personality development, identifying the key challenge the individual confronts at each stage.
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1. Trust vs Mistrust
2. Autonomy vs Shame
3. Initiative vs Guilt
4. Industry vs Inferiority
5. Identity vs Role Confusion
6. Intimacy vs Isolation
7. Generativity vs Stagnation
8. Integrity vs Despair
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"A sense of trust in others" characterizes which stage of personality development?
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Trust vs Mistrust
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"Sense of control over the environment" characterizes which stage of personality development?
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Autonomy vs Shame
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"Ability to imitate others" refers to which stage of personality development?
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Initiative vs Guilt
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"Comparison to others" refers to which stage of personality development?
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Industry vs Inferiority
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"Development of a sense of self; who am I?" characterizes which stage of personality development?
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Identity vs Role Confusion
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"Connecting with others" is associated with which stage of personality development?
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Intimacy vs Isolation
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"Creating something meaningful in life" is associated with which stage of personality development?
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Generativity vs Stagnation
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"Letting go and facing death" characterizes which stage of personality development?
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Integrity vs Despair
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Discuss the work of Karen Horney and her ideas about the influence of culture on personality development.
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Student of Freud who revised his theory on penis envy. Viewed penis as a symbol of social power and women envying that power rather than the organ.
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Discuss the key features of Object Relations theory.
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Moves away from individual person and focuses on the relationships that people have in their childhood. Stresses the importance of developing relationships over the urges and impulses of the child. Early relationships during childhood predict relationships later on in life.
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Discuss the strange situation procedure.
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Parent and child are in a room with toys. After a couple minutes a stranger enters the room and interacts with the child. The parent leaves the room and the child is left with the stranger. Parent returns and comforts the child.
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Describe and identify examples of the three attachment styles (secure, avoidant, anxious-ambivalent).
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1. Secure (60%): Exploration; upset when CG leaves; confident gestures that CG will return; some comfort from stranger, when CG returns seeks comfort and is easily comforted/soothed
2. Insecure Anxious/Ambivalent (20%): Exploration unlikely; extreme separation distress; stranger of no co…
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Describe the two-dimensional model of attachment.
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1. Abandonment anxiety
2. Avoidance of intimacy
(low on both indicates secure attachment pattern)
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identify examples of the four different categories of attachment.
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1. Secure: comfortable with intimacy
2. Preoccupied: uneasy to any threat in relationship doesn't avoid intimacy
3. Dismissing: self-reliant and uninterested in intimacy
4. Fearful: fearful of rejection and mistrustful of others, avoid intimacy
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PPE 3003: EXAM 1