BIO 319 : Exam 1
150 Cards in this Set
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anatomy
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study of the structure of living organisms
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physiology
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study of the function of living organisms
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gross (macroscopic) anatomy
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the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye
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regional anatomy
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a subdivision of gross anatomy; studies all the structures in a particular region of the body at the same time
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systemic anatomy
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a subdivision of gross anatomy; body structure is studied system by system
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surface anatomy
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a subdivision of gross anatomy; the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface
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microscopic anatomy
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deals with structures too small too be seen with the naked eye
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cytology
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studies the cells of the body
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histology
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studies the tissues of the body
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developmental anatomy
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traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span
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embryology
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a subdivision of developmental anatomy; concerns developmental changes that occur before birth
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renal physiology
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concerns kidney function and urine production
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neurophysiology
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explains the workings of the nervous system
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cardiovascular physiology
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examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels
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principle of complementarity of structure and function
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what a structure can do depends on its specific form; function always reflects structure
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chemical level
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the simplest level of the structural hierarchy of the human body; studies atoms combining to form molecules, molecules forming organelles, and cells.
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cellular level
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the second level of the structural hierarchy of the human body; studies the smallest units of living things
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tissue level
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the third level of the structural hierarchy of the human body; studies groups of similar cells that have a common function
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organ level
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the fourth level of the structural hierarchy of the human body; studies discrete structures composed of at least two tissue types that perform a specific function for the body
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organ system level
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the fifth level of the structural hierarchy of the human body; studies organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose
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organismal level
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the highest level of the structural hierarchy of the human body; represents the sum total of all structural levels working together
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necessary life functions
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maintain boundaries, move, respond to environmental changes, take in and digest nutrients, carry out metabolism, dispose of wastes, reproduce, and grow
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maintain its boundaries
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separating a living organism's internal environment from the external environment surrounding it
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movement
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includes the activities promoted by the muscular system
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contractility
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on the cellular level, the muscle cell's ability to move by shortening
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responsiveness (excitability)
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the ability to sense changes (which serve as stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them
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digestion
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the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood
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metabolism
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a broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells
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excretion
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the process of removing wastes, or excreta, from the body
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reproduction
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occurs at the cellular and organismal level; dividing the original cell to produce two identical daughter cells or uniting a sperm with an egg
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growth
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an increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole; usually accomplished by increasing the number of cells
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survival needs
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nutrients, oxygen, water, appropriate temperature, and appropriate atmospheric pressure
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nutrients
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taken in via the diet; contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building
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oxygen
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necessary for all the nutrients in the world to be useful
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water
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accounts for 60-80% of our body weight and is the sing most abundant chemical substance in the body
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normal body temperature
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must be maintained for chemical reactions to continue at life-sustaining rates; about 98.6 degrees F
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atmospheric pressure
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the force that air exerts on the surface of the body
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homeostasis
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the body's ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously
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variable
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the factor or event being regulate
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receptor
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some type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes called stimuli by sending information (input) to the control center along the afferent pathway
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control center
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determines the set point, which is the level or range at which a variable is to be maintained, as well as analyzes the input it receives and determines the appropriate response or course of action. information (output) then flows from the control center to the effector along the efferent …
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effector
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provides the means for the control center's response (output) to the stimulus
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negative feedback mechanism
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the output shuts off he original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity; most homeostatic control mechanisms
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positive feedback mechanisms
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the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated
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homeostatic imbalance
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when the body's internal environmental variable become disturbed
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anatomical position
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the anatomical reference point
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directional terms
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allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another
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axial part
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makes up the main axis of our body; includes the head, neck, and trunk
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appendicular part
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consists of the appendages, or limbs, which are attached to the body's axis
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regional terms
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used to designate specific areas within these major body divisions
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sagittal plane
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a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts
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median (midsaggital) plane
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a sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline
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parasagittal plane
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all other sagittal planes offset from the midline
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frontal (coronal) plane
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a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
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transverse (horizontal) plane
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a horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts
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cross section
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a transverse section
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oblique sections
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cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes
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dorsal body cavity
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protects the fragile nervous system organs; subdivides into the cranial cavity and the vertebral or spinal cavity
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cranial cavity
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in the skull, encases the brain
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vertebral (spinal) cavity
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runs within the body vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord
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ventral body cavity
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the more anterior and arger of the closed body cavities; subdivides into the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. houses viscera
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viscera
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internal organs, collectively
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thoracic cavity
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surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest; subdivides into lateral pleural cavities and the medial mediastinum
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pleural cavities
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each enveloping a lung
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mediastinum
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contains the pericardial cavity
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pericardial cavity
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encloses the heart, and surrounds the remaining thoracic organs (esophagus, trachea, etc.)
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abdominopelvic cavity
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separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the diaphragm; subdivides into the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity
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abdominal cavity
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contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, etc
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pelvic cavity
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lies in the bony pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum
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serous membrane (serosa)
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a thin, double-layered membrane that lines the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains
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parietal serosa
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the part of the membrane lining the cavity walls
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visceral serosa
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the part of the membrane covering the organs in the cavity
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serous fluid
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a thin layer of lubricating fluid that separates the serous membranes
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demosomes
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anchoring junctions; mechanical couplings scattered like rivets along the sides of abutting cells to prevent their separation
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cells
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the structural units of all living things
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cell theory
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a cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms
the activity of an organism depends on both the individual and the collective activities of its cells
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generalized (composite) cell
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any one of a collection of different types of cells that all have the same general chemical makeup that perform the same functions
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the three parts of the human cell
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plasma membrane: outer boundary
cytoplasm: intracellular fluid packed with organelles
nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular
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plasma membrane
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defines the extent of a cell, thereby separating two of the body's major fluid compartments--the intracelluar fluid within cells and the extracellular fluid outside cells
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fluid mosaic model
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depicts the plasma membrane as an exceedingly thing structure composed of a double layer, or bilayer, of lipid molecules with protein molecules dispersed in it
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phospholipids
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lollipop-shaped molecules with a hydophilic head and hydrophobic tail
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hydophilic
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water loving
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hydrophobic
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water fearing
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glycolipids
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lipids with attached sugar groups; found only on the outer plasma membrane surface
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integral proteins
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proteins firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer
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peripheral proteins
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proteins not embedded in the ipid bilayer; they attach loosely to integral proteins and are easily removed without disrupting the membrane
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lipid rafts
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dynamic assemblies or saturated phospholipids associated with unique lipids called sphingolipids and lots of cholesterol
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glycocalyx
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a layer of externally facing glycoproteins on a cell's plasma membrane; its components determine blood type and are involved in the cellular interactions of fertilization, ebryonic development, and immunity, and act as an adhesive between cells
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tight juction
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area where plasma membranes of adjacent cells are tightly bound together, forming an impermeable barrier
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gap junction
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a passageway between two adjacent cells; formed by transmembrane proteins called connexons
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interstitial fluid
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extracellular fluid; fluid between the cells
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selectively (differentially) permeable
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allows some substances to pass while excluding others
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passive processes
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substances cross the membrane without any energy input from the cell
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active processes
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the cell provides the metabolic energy (usually ATP) needed to move substances across the membrane
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types of passive transport
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diffusion and filtration
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diffusion
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the tendency of melcules or ions to move from an area where they are in higher concentration to an area where they are in lower concentrations, that is, down or along their concentration gradient
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concentration gradient
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the difference in the concentration of a particular substance between two different areas
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simple diffusion
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nonpolar and lipid-soluble substances diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer (e.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide)
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facilitated diffusion
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movement through the membrane by a passive transport process in which the transported substance either (1) binds to protein carriers in the membrane and is ferried across or (2) moves through water-filled protein channers
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carriers
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transmembrane integral proteins that are specific for transporting certain polar molecules or classes of molecules, like sugars or amino acids, that are too large to pass through membrane channels
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channels
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transmembrane proteins that transport substances, usually ions or water, through aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other
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osmosis
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the diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a selectively permeable membrane from a dilute solution into a more concentrated one
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aquaporins (AQPs)
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transmembrane proteins that form water channels
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osmolarity
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the total concentration of all solute particles in a solution
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hydrostatic pressure
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the back pressure exerted by water against the membrane; pressure of fluid in a system
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osmotic pressure
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a measure of the tendency of water to move into a more concentrated solution
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tonicity
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the ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells by altering the cells' internal water volume
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isotonic solutions
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have the same concentrations of nonpenetrating solutes as those found in cells; cells exposed to this retain their normal shape
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hypertonic solutions
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have a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than seen in the cell; cells immersed in this lose water and shrink
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hypotonic solutions
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are more dilute (contain a lower concentration of nonpenetrating solutes) than cells; cells places in this plump up rapidly
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active transport
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membrane transport processes for which ATP is required; requires carrier proteins that combine specifically and reversibly with the transported substances
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solute pumps
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move solutes, most importantly ions, "uphill" against a concentration gradient; cells must expend energy to do this
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symport system
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a type of secondary active transport; the two transported substances move in the same direction
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antiport system
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a type of secondary active transport; the transported substances cross the membrane in opposite directions
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primary active transport
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a type of active transport in which the energy needed to drive the transport process is provided directly by hydrolysis of ATP
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sodium-potassium pump
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a primary active transport system that simultaneously drives sodium out of the cell against a steep gradient and pumps potassium back in
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electrochemical gradients
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the combined difference in concentration and charge; influences the distribution and direction of diffusion of ions
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secondary active transport
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transport driven indirectly by energy stored in ionic gradients created by primary active transport pumps
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vesicular transport
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fluids containing large particles and macromolecules are transported across cellular membranes inside membranous sacs called vesicles
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clathrin
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the coating found on the cytoplasmic face of the pit of the enfolding portion of the plasma membrance; bristlelike protein
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phagocytosis
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the cell engulfs some relatively large or solid material
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phagosome
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vesicle formed as a result of phagocytosis
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amoeboid motion
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the flowing movement of the cytoplasm of a phagocyte
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pinocytosis
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a bit of infolding plasma membrane surrounds a very small volume of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules
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receptor-mediated endocytosis
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the type of endocytosis in which engulfed particles attach to receptors before endocytosis occurs
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caveolae
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tubular or flask-shaped inpocketings of the plasma membrane
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exocytosis
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vesicular transport processes that eject substances from the cell interior into the extracellular fluid
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membrane potential
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voltage across the plasma membrane
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resting membrane potential
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the voltage that exists across the plasma membrane during the resting state of an excitable cell; ranges from -90 to -20 millivolts depending on cell type
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polarized
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state of a plasma membrane of an unstimulated neuron or muscle cell in which the inside of the cell is relatively negative in comparison to the outside; the resting state
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membrane receptors
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a huge and diverse group of integral proteins and glycoproteins that serve as binding sites
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cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
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found on almost every cell in the body; play key roles in emryonic development, wound repair and immunity
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ligands
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chemicals that bind specifically to plasma membrane receptors; most neurotransmitters, hormones, and paracrines)
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g protein-linked receptors
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exert their effect indirectly through a g protein
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g protein
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a regulatory molecule that acts as a middleman or relay to activate (or inactivate) a membrane-bound enzyme or ion channel
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second messengers
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intracellular molecule generated by the binding of a chemical (hormone, neurotransmitter) to a receptor protein; mediates intracellular responses to the chemical messenger
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cyclic AMP
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intracellular second messenger that mediates the effects of the first (extracellular) messenger (hormone, neurotransmitter), formed from ATP by a plasma membrane enzyme
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cytoplasm
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the cellular material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus; the site of most cellular activities; consists of three parts: the cytosol, organelles, and inclusions
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cytosol
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the viscous, semitransparent fluid in which the other cytoplasmic elements are suspended
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organelles
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the metabolic machinery of the cell; each carries out a specific function for the cell
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inclusions
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chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on cell type (e.g., nutrients)
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mitochondria
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threadlike or lozenge-shaped membranous organelles; the power plants of a cell, providing most of its ATP supply
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cristae
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inner membrane folds
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ribosomes
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small, dark-staining granules composed of proteins and a variety of RNAs called ribosomal RNAs; sites of protein synthesis
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endomembrane system
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a system of organelles that work together mainly to (1) produce, degrade, store, and export biological molecules, and (2) degrade potentially harmful substances; includes the ER, golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, and lysosomes
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cytoskeletom
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an elaborate network of rods running through the cytosol and hundreds of accessory proteins that link these rods to other cell structures; supports cellular structures and provides the machinery to generate various cell movements; the three types are microfilaments, intermediate filaments…
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microfilaments
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the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton; semiflexible strands of the protein actin; strengthen cell surface, resist compression, and transmit force during cellular movements and shape changes
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intermediate filaments
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tough, insoluble protein fibers that resemble woven ropes; made of twisted unit of tetramer (4) fibrils; most stable and permanent of the cytoskeletal elements and have a high tensile strength; act as internal guy-wires to resist pulling forces exerted on the cell
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microtubules
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hollow tubes made of spherical protein subunits called tublins; radiate from a small region of cytoplasm near the nucleus called the centrosome (cell center); remarkably dynamic, constantly growing, disassembling, and then reassembling at the same or different sites; determine the overall…
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motor proteins
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tiny protein machines that continually move and reposition the organelles along the microtubules
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Bio 319 Exam 3