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PSY 213: EXAM 3
Motivation |
Internal state that initiates, directs, and sustains behavior |
Achievement movitation |
Desire to excel, striving for excelence and success, most psychologists say that it is a learned behavior |
Adler |
birth order hypothesis
Oldest child tends to be higher in achievement motivation |
Attribution theory |
Considers to what or to whom a person assigns responsibility for success or failure
|
Locus of control (x2) |
Tells where the responsibility is assigned for success or failure [related to attribution theory]
internal -- tend to see their successes or failures as the consequences of their own actions an characteristics
external -- tend to credit or blame outside forces |
Efficacy |
Competence
A feeling that comes from interacting effectively with the environment |
Bandura's theory of self-efficacy |
Focuses on expectations of efficacy rather than on feelings
|
Four sources of efficacy expectations |
1) past performance accomplishments -- success in past probably means success in future
2) vicarious experiences -- living through someone else to be successful
3) verbal persuasion -- doing what others say to do, being what they say we are or aren't
4) emotional arousal -- being more apt to be successful due to emotions
|
Learned helplessness |
Sense that nothing one does maters and that one is doomed to fail |
Seligman's experiment |
Learned helplessness in dogs
Inescapable cages, mild shock treatment, turned to cowering in corners, unlocked doors, did not try to escape
|
Intrinsic motivation |
Doing something because it is fun and rewarding; delivery of a physical reward can often decrease intrinsically-motivated behavior |
Extrinsic motivation |
Doing something to get something else; it is a means to an end |
Maslow's hierarchy of needs |
Deficiency needs -- physiological needs, safety, Belongingness and love, esteem -- when these are met, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases
Being (growth) needs -- cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization, transcendence -- when these are met, the motivation for fulfilling them increases for further fulfillment
|
James-Lange (theory of emotion) |
Feedback from the body produce the emotion; physiological changes first and then emotion |
Cannon-Bard (theory of emotion) |
Physiological changes and emotional feelings occur simultaneously
|
Facial feedback (theory of emotion) |
Emotion comes from an awareness of our facial expressions ("smiling makes your happier") |
Schachter-Singer (theory of emotion) |
Cognitive appraisal/arousal
Emotion is a product of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretations of it
|
Opponent process (theory of emotion) |
For every emotional reaction, there is an opposite or opponent reaction (eg. drugs produce euphoria, then there is nausea, fatigue, etc.); the reaction will last longer with more use
|
Personality |
A person's characteristic patterns of behavior, thinking, and feeling |
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory |
Believed that the structure of an individual's personality is most influenced by the first 6 years of life
|
Three levels of consciousness [proposed by Freud] |
Conscious -- what you're thinking about right now (above the surface)
Preconscious -- memories that can be easily recalled (just below the surface)
Unconscious -- memories that are difficult to recall (far below the surface)
Levels compared to iceberg |
Three personality forces [Freud] |
id, ego, superego |
Id [Freud] |
Most primitive part of personality, exists at birth
Operates on the pleasure principle -- wants immediate satisfaction of drives for pleasure
"I want...so I'm going to..." |
Ego [Freud] |
Begins to emerge during first year of life, protects the person and copes with the real world
Operates on the reality principle -- tries to find safe and realistic ways to meet the id's needs
"Maybe if I..." |
Superego [Freud] |
Begins to develop around 2-3 years of life, opposes desires of id by enforcing moral restrictions and striving to attain a goal of perfection, equivalent to want we call "conscience"
"No"
|
Defense mechanisms [Freud] |
Unconscious or pre conscious ways to combat anxiety through the distortion of reality, includes: repression, regression, projection, displacement, and undoing
|
Repression [Freud] |
Actively forgetting painful memories |
Regression [Freud] |
Retreat to behavior of an earlier stage of development
|
Projection [Freud] |
Unknowingly projecting one's own unacceptable thoughts or motives to an innocent person/thing |
Displacement [Freud] |
Venting one's feelings on an innocent person/object rather than the one involved |
Undoing [Freud] |
Trying to undo (or make up for) something done or a thought that was unacceptable |
Libido [Freud's theory] |
basic, instinctual energy that has a strong sexual component; Freud believed that it became concentrated on different parts of the body at different age levels and proposed psychosexual stages of development |
Psychosexual stages of development [Freud] |
Oral (1st year)
Anal (2nd year)
Phallic (3-6 years)
Latency (6-11 years)
Genital (begins at 11-12 years) |
Oral stage [Freud] |
occurs during first year of life
emphasis on feeding |
Anal stage [Freud] |
second year
emphasis on elimination |
Phallic [Freud] |
3-6 years
most controversial stage
sexual feelings for opposite-sex parent
called "Oedipus complex" for boys and "Electra complex" for girls |
Latency [Freud] |
6-11 years
Sexual feelings repressed
Emphasis on social and intellectual functioning |
Genital [Freud] |
Begins around 11 or 12 years
Emphasis on identification with one's own sex and capacity for heterosexual love and commitment
|
Fixation of libidinal energy [Freud] |
Libidinal energy could become fixated at a certain stage (esp. stages 1-3) if a person experiences disagreeable experiences; then later in life the person would be predisposed to reduce tension by regressing to behavior of that earlier stage (ex: fixation in oral stage -- smoking, drinking, overeating, biting fingernails) |
Psychoanalysis [Freud] |
Seeks to reveal and interpret contents of unconscious mind, Freud used free association and dream interpretation |
Psychodynamic therapy |
Seeks to understand themes in relationships and unconscious motives; more direct with shorter duration than psychoanalysis |
Freud's contributions to psychology |
Stressed the importance of childhood to later development
Gave us a concept of defense mechanisms
Influenced other psychologists who developed their own theories |
Carl Jung |
Neo-Freudian
Proposed the idea of a collective unconscious inherited from humanity's ancestors (contains archetypes -- universal themes and images common to all people) as well as a personal unconscious; persona -- mask, face, image we present to others; shadow -- darker, more aggressive side of one's personality
Proposed two personality orientations: introversion and extroversion
|
Introversion [Jung] |
Quiet, reserve, energizes from time spent alone |
Extroversion [Jung] |
Outgoing, energizes from time spent with other people
|
Karen Horney |
Neo-Freudian
Proposed basic anxiety
Maladaptive ways of dealing with anxiety are moving toward (dependency), against (aggression), or away from (withdrawal) others
|
Alfred Adler |
Neo-Freudian
Founded the school of individual psychology
Believed that the inability to overcome a childhood sense of incompleteness results in an inferiority complex |
Social cognitive (learning) theory |
Observation and modeling
Albert Bandura
Reciprocal determinism
|
Reciprocal determinism [Bandura] |
Process in which cognitions, behavior, and the environment mutually influence each other
|
Humanistic psychology |
Positive qualities and the need for personal growth and fulfillment
Maslow and Rogers
(Positive psych -- similar, but tries to give a scientific foundation for its theories) |
Carl Rogers's client-centered therapy |
Uses reflective listening
|
Reflective listening [Rogers] |
Therapist should have (1) genuineness, (2) empathy, and (3) unconditional positive regard (respect)
|
Projective assessment techniques |
All based on the Projective Hypothesis
Ex: Rorschach Inkblot Technique, Thematic Apperception Test, and sentence completion tests
Examiner looks for recurring themes in the responses to the Rorschach and the TAT as well as who the person is identifying with, mood, interpersonal relations, and feelings about the future
Shortcomings: interpreter bias and problems with validity and reliability due to situational variables
|
Projective hypothesis |
If one presents a neutral, unstructured, ambiguous stimulus to an individual, that person will project part of his/her personality into the response |
Rorschach Inkblot Technique [Projective technique] |
Contains 10 cards with ink blots on them, subject asks to tell what he or she sees on each card |
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) [Projective technique] |
Contains ambiguous pictures, subject asked to tell a story about each picture
Story should include what is happening, what led up to the event, how the characters are feeling, and the outcome
|
Objective assessment techniques |
NOT the same as a projective technique; considered to be reliable and valid
Ex: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) |
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) [Objective assessment technique] |
Can assist in developing a clinical diagnosis and personality description
Can be used to predict prison adjustment, alcoholism, and acute depression
Very useful in predicting suitable candidates for psychotherapy |
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) [Objective assessment techniques] |
Based on Jung's theory of personality
Categories include:
Introvert vs extrovert (reserved vs outgoing)
Thinking vs feeling (facts vs values)
Sensing vs intuition (facts vs theories)
Judging vs perceiving (planner vs spontaneous) |
Two sources of developmental change |
Maturation and experience
|
Maturation |
The orderly unfolding of traits, as regulated by the genetic code |
Examples of maturation |
Disappear (or reverse) as maturation takes place
Babinski reflex
Rooting reflex
Grasping reflex |
Babinski reflex |
Newborn infants flex their toes outward when the sole of the foot is touched or scratched (opposite past infancy)
|
Rooting reflex |
If the corners of infants' mouths are touched, they will turn their heads in that direction (and suck)
|
Grasping reflex |
During the first few weeks of life, infants will firmly grasp a finger or pencil placed in their hands
|
Factors which influence prenatal development |
Mother's diet -- causes child to be malnourished, malformed, lower intelligence
Drugs -- causes all kinds of birth defects and addiction; even with OTC drugs
Alcohol -- causes fetal alcohol syndrome, extra fingers and/or toes, jail time due to underdeveloped moral judgement; effects present even with only a little alcohol
Cigarette smoking -- causes miscarriages, stillbirths, lighter/smaller babies, premature infants, school/behavior problems, childhood cancer, and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS); even with second hand smoke
Chemicals -- such as carbon monoxide, laughing gas, toxins, cat feces, etc.
Radiation -- causes malformed eyes and brain
Diseases
Blood -- interaction of Rh+ and Rh- blood types which attack each other (Rhogan shots needed early on if mother and child have diff blood types)
Mother's age -- older ages can cause developmental abnormalities, miscarriages, and stillbirths; possibility of Down Syndrome increases with age; best age for child-bearing is 20-29
Extreme anxiety in mother
Father -- age, smoking, and alcohol can cause birth defects
Other -- no kitty litter, rollercoasters, hot tubs, or raw lunch meat |
Mineral which prevents neurological deficits |
folic acid
found in darker leafy greens, peas, lentils, fruits, nuts, etc. |
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (characteristics) |
Characterized by intellectual disabilities, delayed growth, and other defects |
Neonates |
Infants from birth to 1 month of age
|
Characteristics of newborns |
-Cannot focus eyes well (nearsighted) -- BUT can distinguish between light and dark, can detect movement, can track a visual stimulus (can differentiate colors at 1-2 months)
-Recognize mother's face at 2 weeks
-Can distinguish people's voices
-Prefer sweet tastes to bitter ones
-Random -- music (Mozart), don't play catch until 2 years, don't shake or toss until 3 years (jostles brain), always provide support for head and neck, don't place baby on stomach or side (only on back) |
Three most important developmental tasks of infancy |
1) ability to perceive the world accurately
2) ability to move about purposefully
3) ability to develop social relationships
|
Stages of development in babies |
Approx. 1 year before have complete integration of senses
Turn over at approx. 3 months
Sit alone at approx. 6 months
Walk at approx. 12 months |
Cephalocaudal principles |
Embryonic stage and motor development follow the head-to-toe direction of development (i.e. head then hands then feet)
|
Piaget's theory of cognitive development |
We organize the world into concepts (schema)
We adapt by assimilation and accommodation of new schema |
Assimilation of schema [Piaget] |
The process whereby new concepts and experiences (schema) are incorporated into existing ones and are then used in a meaningful way (new stimulus is interpreted in terms of what is already known)
Example:
-schema -- banging rattle on table
-new concept -- block
-assimilation -- banging block on table
|
Accommodation of schema [Piaget] |
The adjustment to new objects or stimuli by acquiring new responses; a change or modification
Example:
-schema -- banging rattle on table
-new object -- egg
-assimilation -- banging egg on table (breaks -- no go)
-accommodation -- cannot bang egg on table
|
Piaget's stages of cognitive development |
Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Preoperational (2-6/7 years)
Concrete operational (7-11/12 years)
Formal operational (12 years-adulthood)
|
Sensorimotor stage [Piaget] |
Control of body movement to interact with environment is important; develop object permanence (concept that an object exists even when not physically present or when covered up)
Ex. crying for mother b/c know she's in the other room; reaching for toy under blanket b/c know it's still there
|
Preoperational stage [Piaget] |
Learning to represent the world symbolically through words or visual images is important; egocentrism because cannot understand differing perspectives |
Concrete operational stage [Piaget] |
Ability to predict reactions and to reason logically is seen; begin to understand conservation (concept that quantity remains the same although its dimensions may change)
Ex. pouring water from a glass into a bowl and knowing that it's the same amount of water |
Formal operational stage [Piaget] |
Characterized by:
-ability to use abstract thinking for example hypothetical-deductive reasoning and imagining possibilities
-metacognition (ability to think about one's own thoughts)
-adolescent egocentrism (belief that everyone is as concerned with your own thoughts as you are)
-imaginary audience (concern that everyone is watching and evaluating everything that you do)
-personal fable (untrue story believed about oneself; could be positive or negative) |
Stats about formal operations |
-Only about 50% of adults and college students use formal operations and abstract thinking
-Piaget recommended studying math and science to develop it
-Some people only use it in their personal area of expertise |
Attachment |
An emotional bond formed between an infant. And a primary caregiver (attachment to fathers is similar to that of mothers)
Parents can contribute to secure attachment by providing prompt and sensitive responses to the baby's needs as well as providing social stimulation
Ex: pick up child when they cry, especially in first few months |
Harlow's study |
Experiment: about attachment with monkeys and two moms
Conclusion: humans need to be shown love or else they cannot love other later in life
Modification: humans can develop social skills and the ability to love by being with younger children
|
Spitz's study |
Experiment: yeah, I wasn't paying that much attention
Conclusion: lack of physical ability to form bonds |
Baumrind's parenting styles |
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Indulgent
Neglectful
Authoritative style produces the most contented and self-reliant children
Typically, it is difficult to change style from that of one's own parents |
Authoritarian [Baumrind] |
Controlling, may use punishment, says "because I say so" as explanation
|
Authoritative [Buamrind] |
Warm, caring, discusses things but always has the final say, sets limits
|
Indulgent [Baumrind] |
Child has control, very few restrictions |
Neglectful [Baumrind] |
Parents are uninvolved in children's lives
|
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development |
Lifespan personality development involves a crisis to be resolved at each stage; ratio of resolutions should be in favor of positive qualities; people go through each stage in a fixed order; outcome of each stage partly determines the course of future personality development |
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development |
Stage 1 -- trust vs mistrust (0-1 year)
Stage 2 -- autonomy vs shame/doubt (2-3 years)
Stage 3 -- initiative vs guilt (4-5 years)
Stage 4 -- industry vs inferiority (6-11 years)
Stage 5 -- identity vs identity confusion (12-18 years)
Stage 6 -- intimacy vs isolation (20-40 years/young adulthood)
Stage 7 -- generativity vs stagnation (40-65 years/middle adulthood)
Stage 8 -- integrity vs despair (65+ years/older adulthood)
|
Stage 1 [Erikson] |
Trust vs mistrust (0-1 years)
Warm, responsive, consistent care is needed to build trust |
Stage 2 [Erikson] |
Autonomy vs shame/doubt (2-3 years)
Parents should let children try out skills at their own pace
Overprotection and lack of support can lead to shame and doubt
|
Stage 3 [Erikson] |
Initiative vs guilt (4-5 years)
Encourage children to try new activities and ask questions
Children should be eager for responsibility (ex. household chores) and their contribution should be valued
|
Stage 4 [Erikson] |
Industry vs inferiority (6-11 years)
Children needs to learn basic academic skills in school and how to complete assigned tasks (ex. homework)
Never finishing what is started and criticism can lead to feelings of inferiority |
Stage 5 [Erikson] |
Identity vs role confusion (12-18 years)
Primary danger is failing to develop a consistent concept of self
Questions such as "who am I?" and "what will my career be?" are considered
Good self-concept, good sense of values, internal stability, and positive feedback can help establish one's identity
Identity crisis -- kind of struggle to develop an identity |
Stage 6 [Erikson] |
Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood/20-40 years)
Intimacy -- ability to form a deep respectful relationship with warmth and sharing
Isolation -- occurs when one cannot establish or tolerate close feelings toward another person (loneliness)
|
Stage 7 [Erikson] |
Generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood/40-65 years)
Generativity -- sense of inner competence resulting from success in work, marriage, parenthood, etc. (purposeful eg, productivity, helping next generation)
Stagnation -- turning inward resulting form failure in work, marriage, parenthood, etc. (emptiness and lack of growth; self-absorption)
|
Stage 8 [Erikson] |
Integrity vs despair (late adulthood/65+ years)
Results from life-review process (reflection and evaluation of one's accomplishments)
If it brings wholeness and fulfillment, one has integrity
If one's life has been wasted and it's too late for fulfillment, one has despair
|
Kohlberg's theory of moral development |
Modeled after Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Kohlberg's research used moral dilemmas
Moral reasoning develops in a specific order where one's morality must precede the next, although there can be overlapping
Believed that parents and teachers should discuss moral issues and explore difficult problems with their children/students |
Kohlberg's stage of moral development |
Level 1 -- Preconventional
Stage 1
Stage 2
Level 2 -- Conventional
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 4 1/2
Level 3 -- Postconventional
Stage 5
Stage 6
|
Level 1 [Kohlberg] |
Level 1 -- Preconventional
Stage 1 -- obedience to avoid punishment // cognitive pre-req: pre-operations (at least 2 years)
Stage 2 -- focus on safety needs and gaining rewards; making deal with people which are mutually beneficial (esp for you) // cognitive pre-req: concrete operations (at least 7 years)
|
Level 2 [Kohlberg] |
Level 2 -- Conventional // cognitive pre-req: beginning formal operations (at least 12 years)
Stage 3 -- moral decisions based on approval and impressing others; "good-boy/-girl"
Stage 4 -- obedience to authority with no exceptions; morals seen as black and white with no grey area; "law and order"
Stage 4 1/2 -- transitional stage; relativistically seeing problems in today's society but not knowing what to do about them so doing nothing; "I don't want to think about it."
|
Level 3 [Kohlberg] |
Level 3 -- Postconventional // cognitive pre-req: full formal operations (adulthood)
Stage 5 -- concerned with meeting the needs of society; focus on the greatest good for the majority; can make exceptions and see shades of grey; trying to change laws that do not fit society's needs
Stage 6 -- obedience to one's own conscience; willing to suffer consequences for one's decisions; living by self-chosen ethical principles
Factors which influence movement to this level:
Moral and cognitive conflict
Role-taking opportunities
Responsibility for others
Formal education
|
Average stage of moral development
-for adolescent
-for adults
-for college students |
Adolescents: conventional level
Adults: conventional level (less than 25% at postconventional level)
College students: stage 4 1/2 (doing nothing)
|
Fowler |
Kohlberg's coworker who founded stages of faith-based stages of moral reasoning based on Kohlberg's stages
|
Characteristics of adolescents (approx 13-19 years old) |
Two perspectives:
"Storm and stress" group (Hall, Freud, Erikson) -- believed adolescence to be very stressful
"Anti-storm and stress" group (Bandura and social learning theorists) -- emphasized importance of environment
|
Characteristics of early adulthood (approx 20-40 years old) |
Three major characteristics:
Physical and personal development
Marriage and parenthood
Jobs and careers
(Height of physical health and endurance in the 20's) |
Characteristics of middle adulthood (approx 40-65 years old |
-Physical changes that signal the end of youth (grey hair, muscles decrease, meno-/andropause, loss of vision and hearing, etc.) -- best to adjust by a balanced diet (salmon, blueberries, walnut, spinach, broccoli, etc.) and appropriate exercise and cognitive stimulation -- these three also help prevent dementia and Alzheimer's
-Success in job/career is important to contentment in mid-life, job satisfaction peaks in middle-age
-Empty nest syndrome -- as last child leaves home |
Characteristics of late adulthood (approx 65+ years old) |
-People living longer today
-Physical changes -- health is important; approx 80% have chronic health problems; internal organs cannot regain full efficiency after disease, shock, or stress; mental activity and physical activityand proper nutrition help slow aging process
-Adjustment to old age is more difficult for people who are forced to retire and those in poor health
-Often confront loss of spouse
-Think about death more, but fear it less
|
Kubler-Ross |
Outlined five stages that terminally-ill people go through as they approach death; do not have to go through all the stages in order |
Kubler-Ross stages of dying |
Stage 1 -- denial
Stage 2 -- anger
Stage 3 -- bargaining
Stage 4 -- depression
Stage 5 -- acceptance |
Stage 1 of dying |
Denial
"No, it can't be true"
May demand more tests and change doctors |
Stage 2 of dying |
Anger
"Why me?"
Resentment and envy, outbursts of temper (family and medical staff should try to empathize and give attention to patient)
|
Stage 3 of dying |
Bargaining
Try to delay or postpone death in some way; often try to make a bargain with God
|
Stage 4 of dying |
Depression
Reactive depression -- refers to current and past losses
Preparatory depression -- refers to impending losses and separations |
Stage 5 of dying |
Acceptance
Period of peace; often devoid of emotions; more apt to reach this stage if they have had time to work through other stages and express their feelings; families may need more help and support in this stage than patients |
More info about dying |
Important to allow dying patients to maintain as much control over their lives as possible -- include them in decision-making, treatment, etc.
|