PSY - P 304 : FINAL EXAM
109 Cards in this Set
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Circadian Rhythm
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a daily cyclical change in behavioral and physiological processes (circadian= "about a day")
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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
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Act as a brands internal clock
-Generates circadian rhythyms in a genetically controlled manner
-Single cell extracted from the SCN produces action potential in rhythmic pattern
-Damage to SCN disrupts circadian rhythyms
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Zeitgeber
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a stimulus (like the morning sun) that acts to reset the biological clock
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Zeitgeber Stimlulus
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light sensitive retinal ganglion cells send axons to the suprachiasmatic nucleus to provide an input that rests the biological clock every morning
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Without Zeitgeber
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(e.g. animal living in complete darkness) circadian rhythyms have a cycle slightly longer than 24 hrs (~25 hrs)
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Lesions of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
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-After lesions animal more active in the darks, but sleep cycle loses its rhythm
-Withs lights off, sleep cycle becomes completely random
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Awake
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-Alpha (8-12 Hz) relaxed state
-Beta (13-30 Hz) aroused state
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Stage 1 Sleep
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Theta (3.5-7.5 Hz) transitions between sleep and wakefulness
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Stage 2 Sleep
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Theta (3.5-7.5 Hz) sleep spindles
K complexes
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Stage 3 (slow wave) Sleep
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Delta (<3.5 Hz) deepest sleep
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REM Sleep
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Beta (13-30 Hz)
Rapid Eye Movements
No muscle tones most associated with dreams
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Restorative Theory of Sleep
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sleep provides a chance for the body/brain to repair what & tear
-prolonged mental activity is increased sleep that night
-high levels of growth hormones released during sleep that facilitates repair of damaged tissues
-sleep strengthens immune system
-provides a time for metabolites …
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Sleep alters cleaning efficiency of CSF
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-Interstitial space (space between neurons, glia, blood vessels, etc) expands during sleep, allowing greater flow of CSF
-Greater CSF flow cleans out metabolites from the brain (including some associated with Alzheimers Disease)
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Energy Conservation Theory
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sleep conserves energy during a time (nighttime) in which it would be difficult to replace the calories spent forging/hunting for food (hibernation is an extreme example of this)
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Niche Adaption
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quiet period makes it easier to remain undetected by predators
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Facilitation of Learning
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sleep allows for a period of memory consolidation & clean-up
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Preliminary findings
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-Memories of learned facts (names, vocabulary, etc) reinforced in deep sleep
-PAttern recognition (grammas, logic, etc) reinforced by REM sleep
-Motor skills (musicians, athletes) reinforced by Stage 2 sleep
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Dreams
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often occur during REM sleep
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REM Sleep Dreams
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-Associated with narrative storyline
~Often bizarre/illogical, but accepted unquestioningly
-Perceptions and actions within the dreams are associate with activation in associated brain areas
~Motorneurons are inhibited so that the dream is not acted out (REM-related paralysis, except f…
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non-REM dreams
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-Less of a narrative component
~Often a simple feeling or emotion
-Sometimes associated with:
~somnambolism: sleep-walking
~night terrors: dreams associated with abstract feelings of intense dread/fear (not nightmares)
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Theories of dream meaning
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Freudian theory, Action-Synthesis Theory, Evolved Threat-Rehearsal Theory
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Freudian Theory
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dreams reflect unconsious conflicts within the mind of the dreamer, in a symbolic for disguised to avoid direct confrontation with conflict
~No evidence supports this
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Action-Synthesis Theory
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dreams reflect the brain's (left hemisphere interpreter's?) attempt to create a narrative to explain the random firing of neurons that occurs during the dream, with the deactivation seen in the frontal lob contributing to the illogical nature of dream
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Evolved Threat-Rehearsal Theory
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dreams provide a virtual simulation of threatening or unusual circumstances so the strategies for coping can be tested and rehearsed
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Reticular Formation
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located in brainstem from the midbrain to medulla, sends axons throughout the brain
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Functions of Reticular Formation
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-recieves visual, auditory and somatosensory input (hence their alerting effects)
-stimulation of reticular formation awakens a sleeping animal; lesions make an animal drowsy/sleepy
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Ventrolateral preoptic areas (VLPA)
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located in the basal forebrain rostral to hypothalamus
-elctrical stimulation of VLPA evokes slow-wave sleep
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Control of REM Sleep
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peribrachial area of the pons: controls the onset of REM sleep
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Peribrachial area of Pons
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stimulation of it induces REM sleep; lesions decrease the occurrence of REM sleep
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REM-related Muscle Atonia
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Produced by inhibitory neurons in nucleus magnocelluraris
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REM Behavior Disorder (REM without atone)
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-results for lesions of the nucleus magnocelluraris
-defect in the neural system that causes REM-related paralysis results in the animal acting out its dreams
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Narcolepsy
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neurological disorder characterized by the urge to fall asleep at inappropriate times
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Cataplexy
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complete loss of muscle tone during the awake stat, related to a hyper excitability of the neurons of the nucleus magnocellularis
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Recent findins in Narcolepsy
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found to be related to a deficiency in the neuromodultor orexin (hypocretin)
-possible autoimmune disease eliminates hypocretin neurons in humans, genetic defect of hypocretin receptors in dogs
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What an emotion includes
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1. A subjective feeling
2. A behavioral response
3. A physiological reaction
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Racial Expression Suggests Basic Emotions
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-strong cross-cultural similarities
-suggests a biological basis for expressive emotions
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Neural Circuits for Facial Expressions
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Genuine Smile and Volitional Smile
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Genuine Smile
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Circuit passes through orbitofrontal cortex & hypothalamus
- A genuine smile (Duchenne Smile) also includes a tightening of muscle around the eyes (Duchenne muscles), causing a slight squint
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Volitional Smile
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Circuit passes through Primary Motor Cortex
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Volitional Facia Paralysis
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right hemisphere is lesioned and left side is paralyzed
-only right side of face response to making volitional smile
-genuine smile works fine
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Emotional facial paralysis
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left hemisphere lesioned and right side paralyzed
-hase muscle strength to move muscles on both sides of mouth
-genuine smile only engages left side of face
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Dominance of Production of Facial Expression
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Right Hemisphere show dominance for production of facial expressions
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Theories of Subjective Feeling of Emotions
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Common Sense View,
Cannon-Bard Theory, James-Lange Theory, Schachter's Cognitive Theory
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Common Sense View
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is that the subjective feeling is experiences first, then this drives the autonomic response
~good evidence that this is incorrect
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Cannon-Bard Theory
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an emotional event simultaneously evokes the feeling of the emotion and the physical changes that accompany it
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The James-Lange Theory
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How we feel depends on the interpretation of the physical changes (autonomic, behavioral) that occur in body as response to an emotional event
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James-Lange Theory
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-Environmental event triggers behavioral, autonomic, and endocrine response
-Feedback from responses produces feelings of emotions
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Schacters Cognitive Theory
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The physical changes evoked by an emotional event are attributed to the prevailing environmental conditions, leading to an emotional feeling that corresponds
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Testing of Schacters Theory
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Misattribution of arousal is shows evidence of this theory
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Misattribution of Arousal
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Misattribution of Arousal participants who were misinformed or uniformed about the cause of their arousal felt either angry or euphoric, depending on whether a confederate was angry or euphoric
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Limbic System
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traditionally associated with emotion
-Limbic=border between forebrain and brainstem
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Amygdala
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-almond shaped structure buried in the temporal lobe
-processes emotional significant of stimuli
-key structure in fear and anxiety
-single unit recordings and fMRI show cells that are responsive to emotional situations/stimuli
-Stimulation evokes behavioral effects of strong emotion…
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Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
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Unusual social behavior and emotional responses:
-emotional bluntness/tameness
-tendencey to approach objects that should elicit a fear reponses
-hyperorality
-hypersexuality
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Amygdala Damage in Humans (Patient S.M)
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-Rare genetic disease causing bilateral amygdala damage
-General fearlessness
-Little autonomic nervous system activation to fearful stimuli
-Impaired at recognizing and drawing fearful expression
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Amygdala & Fear Conditioning
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can condition a fear response in stimuli that would not usually invoke a fear response
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Damage to Amygdala
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impairs fear conditioning
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Orbital & Medial Prefrontal Cortex
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-regulates emotions according to circumstances
-can override initial appraisal of emotional stimuli
-control impulses to approach/withdraw
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Phineas Gage
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demonstrated that damage to orbital and medial prefrontal cortex caused erratic emotions: frequent outbursts of anger, rage, couldn't inhibit inappropriate behavior
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Frontal Lobotomies
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-surgical procedures that isolates the prefrontal cortex from rest of brain
-Developed by Antonio Moniz as treatment for various psychiatric disease (e.g. schizophrenia) won the Nobel Prize
Walter Freeman perform thousands in 1940s-60s
-Typically cause loss of emotions, passivity, diff…
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Medial Forebrain Bundle & Nucleus Accumbens
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Pleasure/Reward Center in the brain
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Hypothalamic Attack Area
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-Region in hypothalamus associated with aggression
-Single unit recordings show increase in activity before/during aggressive behaviors, decrease mating
-Artificial stimulation prompts aggressive behaviors
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Neuropharmacological Basis of Aggression
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-Testosterone increases in many species
-Relationship in humans less clear
-Experience & dominance can affect testosterone levels; winners show higher levels than losers
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Birth position and aggression in female rats
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Number of male "neighbors" in the womb affects levels of aggression in female rats
-Increases in aggression in 2M females relative to 0M and 1M
-Thought to be due to increases in prenatal androgens that spread between neighbors
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Serotonin and Aggressive Behavior
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-Serotonin (5-HT) decreases aggression
-Low serotonin levels in primates associated with risk taking and aggression
-Monkeys with low serotonin end up dying earlier, either from injuries resulting from aggressive behavior or accidents due to risky behavior
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Learning
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changes that occur within the brain to allow the acquisition of new information for long-term storage
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Memory
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the storage and retrieval of information previously acquired through learning
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Information Processing Model of Memory
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Sensory Memory, Working Memory (short-term memory), and Long-term Memory
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Sensory Memory
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A trace of the sensory inout for a brief period
-High capacity & very short duration (up to few seconds)
-Easy accessible, but vulnerable
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Working Memory (short-term memory)
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Attentive/conscious processing occurs here. Information can enter from both sensory memory and LTM
-Small capacity and short duration (seconds, or minutes w active rehearsal)
-Easy accessible, but vulnerable
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Long-Term Memory (LTM)
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The stored representation of knowledge gained from previous experience
-Large capacity and indefinite duration (up to decades/lifetime)
-Difficult to access, but durable
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Types of Memory
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Declarative Learning, Implicit Learning
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Declarative Learning
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learning facts and info of which we can be aware (what we normally think of as memory)
-Episodic memory and semantic memory
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Episodic Memory
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autobiographical memories
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Smenatic Memory
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generalized memory of facts
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Nondeclarative learning
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memory about perceptual and motor procedures of which we are typically unaware
-Priming, Motor (skill) learning, and Associative learning (Conditioning)
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Priming
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exposure to one stimulus alters response to another
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Motor (skill) learning
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learning how to control the body in order to respond appropriately
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Associative learning (conditioning)
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learning the relationship between stimuli (classical conditioning), or between behaviors and outcomes (operant or instrumental conditioning)
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Unconditioned stimulus (US)
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A stimulus that reflexivily elicits a response, without prior learning
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Unconditioned response (UR)
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the response reflexively elicited by unconditioned stimulus, without prior learning
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Neutral stimulus
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a stimulus that elicits no reflexive response
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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a stimulus that elicits a particular response only after learning
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Conditions response (CR)
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the response to a conditioned stimulus, after learning has occurred
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Synaptic plasticity
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the basis of learning involving a change in the synaptic structure or biochemistry that alters the efficiency of the synapse in a positive or negative way (Plasticity=the capacity for being molded of altered)
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Hebbian Rule
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a synapse is strengthened if it is repeatedly active when the postsynaptic neuron fires
"Neurons that fire together, wire together"
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Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
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a mechanism by which synaptic connections are strengthened, allowing for a larger excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) in the postsynaptic neuron (Potentiation=to strengthen or make more potent)
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NMDA receptors
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-ion channel opens when bout w/ glutamate neurotransmitter
-but channel blocked by Mg2+ ion
-unless neuron is depolarized already (pushing Mg2+ away) when glutamate is bound
-Na+ and Ca2+ can enter
~depolarizes neuron
~Ca2+ acts as a 2nd messenger
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Effects of LTP
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-causes the insertion of additional glutamate receptors into postsynaptic membrane
-causes structural changes of the synapse that lead to the creation of new synapse
-causes creation of the neuromodulator Nitric Oxide, which diffuses to presynaptic neuron and enhances glutamate release
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Evidence for Role of LTP in Learning
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-LTP prominent in brain areas involved in learning
-Drugs that block LTP also impair learning abilities
-Drugs that facilitate LTP also enhance learning abilities
-Mice genetically-enhanced to have more NMDA receptors have better learning abilities (Doogie mice)
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Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
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is in which the likelihood that an act will be performed depends on the consequences of the reinforcing stimuli that follows
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Biological Basis of Reinforcement
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positive reinforcement is associate with the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the "Reward Centers" of the brain (e.g. nucleus accumbent, ventral segmental area)
-Food, sex, $$$. addictive drugs
-Amount of dopamine released sets a reinforcers reward value
~more dopamine= more…
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Long-Term Declarative Memory
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relies on the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe
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Morris Water Maze
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Environmental cues in room provide info that permits animal to orient themselves in space and learn the location of hidden platform
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Hippocampus and Spatial Navigation
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PET scan showing activation of right hippocampal formation from subjects navigating through town
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Medial Temporal Lobectomy (Patient H.M: Henry Molaison)
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-underwentd surgery for severe epileptic seizures
-bilateral removal of medial temporal lobe, including hippocampus
-almsot total loss of the ability to encode new long term memories
-but preserved short term memory..can hold normal conversations, intact reading ability, and other skil…
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Medial Temporal Lobe Lesion of Clive Wearing
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-In 1985 damage to the medial temporal lobe due to an encephalitis infection
-Profound anterograde and retrograde amnesia
-Can still play the piano, although he has no recollection of ever having been trained
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Amnesia
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a profound impairment of memory as the result of brain injury; the extent of both retrograde and anterograde amnesia depends on severity of injury
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Retrograde Amnesia
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can't remember events prior to brain damage
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Anterograde Amnesia
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can't later remember events that occur after brain damage
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Anterograde Amnesia as Evidence for a Consolidation Process
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H.M. had:
-normal long-term memory of distant past
-normal short-term memory (could carry on conversation, could remember numbers w/ rehearsal, et.)
-but could not for new long-term memories
~Thus hippocampus involved in consolidation
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Consolidation
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process by which immediate memories become lasting (long-term) memories
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Memory Storage
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-hippocampus needed for consolidation, but not where memories are stored
-memories are though to be stored in cortex
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Consolidation view of memory
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is when memories are consilidated from short-term to long-term and retrieved for use
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Reconsolidating view of memory
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memories are retrieved from long-term memory for use and then reconsolidated back to long-term memory
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Reconsolidation
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allows for memory disruption in memory
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Anisomycin
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prevents reconsolidation only after recollection of the information so that the info is forgotten
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Reconsolidation allows
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for memory distortions
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Motor Learning
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relies primarily on the cerebellum and the basal ganglia
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Alzheimers Disease
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a degenerative disorder (cause unknown) that results in a progressive dementia, loss of memory, confusion, hallucinations, motor deficits and eventual death
- Wide sulci indicate thinning cortex due to cell death
-associated with neuronal degeneration, neuritic plaques, and neurofibrill…
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PSY - P 304: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EXAM 3