119 Cards in this Set
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pools
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amounts (how much water has filled up a bath tub)
-units are volume (L)
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flux
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rate of flow
-units need to have time (L/second)
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Where does the energy come from to melt the Mummy's snow?
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sun's radiation
phase change on snow
conduction
convection
absorbing radiation
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conduction
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touching something hotter or colder
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convection
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something hotter or colder moving by
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radiation
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everything in the universe shines (losing energy and cooling) and absorbs (gaining energy and warming)
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water condensing and evaporating
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phase change releases/requires energy
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unit of energy flow per unit of area:
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W/m2
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a Watt is a ____, where a Joule is a:
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-J/s, rate of flow
-an energy unit/amount of energy, 1 Newton of force over a m of distance
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Why is Venus so much hotter than it should be, even though it's at the "sweet spot"?
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it has a thick atmosphere with more carbon dioxide that traps heat
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why is earth only warmer than it should be?
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CO2 and H20 in the atmosphere-greenhouse effect
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what are two colors that don't actually exist in the visible light spectrum?
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pink and brown
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energy _____ as wavelength _____
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increases, shortens
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all objects with a temperature above _____ emit radiation to the environment (shine)
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absolute zero(-273°C)
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the earth receives____radiation but shines ____back into space
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shortwave;
longwave
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at _____, tilt keeps a polar region with either 24 hours of light or darkness
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solstice
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at ____, tilt provids exactly 12 hours or night and 12 hours of day everywhere
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equinox
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Why is fort collins warmer than pingree park?
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adiabatic cooling-not changing energy content, either being compressed/spread out
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why is it warmer in summer than winter?
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more sunlight in summer, at less of an angle than in winter
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how much more solar input do you get in summer than in winter?
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4-5 times
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why isn't there forest in northern alaska?
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short growing season
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why isn't there forest in Sonoran desert, Az?
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water limitation, too hot
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why only "kinda-forest" in pinyon canyon, co?
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limited water, competition
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why isn't there forest in Kruger National Park, S. Africa?
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fire; warm but enough rainfall
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why do trees grow in only certain areas in N. Alaska when light, precipitation, etc kept the same?
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soils-more clay in some areas
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fundamentals of evolution by nat sel:
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-ind diff, these diff. affect survival &rep.
-these diff. partially inheritable
-diff. accumulate over time and yield new spp.
2 types of diff: genes w/in the old gene pool or novel genes from mutation, hybridization
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T/F: for most of earth's history, there were no land plants
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true
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examples of early plants:
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equisetum(horsetail), ferns, lycopodium(club moss)
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gymnosperms: anatomy, pollination, life span, spp.
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-tracheids; naked seeds
-wind
-decades-milennia
-750
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angiosperms: anatomy, pollination, life span, spp.
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-vessels, seeds in vessels
-insect
-weeks to centuries
->250,000
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why blend genotypes?
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greater diversity in the potential of the progeny, and a better chance that some progeny will make it
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why aren't all trees eaten up by diseases/mammals?
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trees produce compounds that taste bad, are toxic, or interfere with digestion; like limonene and alpha-pinene
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provenance
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the are were seeds were collected; a generic term for the genotype of a population found in a particular area
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imagine a bird so common and dominant that there are billions of them across a ___ mi swath of continent; account for ___ to ____% of all bird biomass
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2000; 25-45%
(passenger pigeon)
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prehistoric spp that used to be in CO:
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2(+)spp of mammoths, 1 sp of mastodon, short faced bear, dire wolf, pleistocene lion, giant bever, giant ground sloth, 2 sp sabertooth cats, giant armadillos and more
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where do we find ponderosa, climatically speaking?
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sea level to 3000m elevation (10,000 ft)
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ponderosas need
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summer precipitation; late summer/autumn drought common
-flagstaff and estes park
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life history of ponderosa:
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-con crops very greatly among years, many animals depend on seeds
-seedling establishment best on mineral soil; fire helps seeds germinate
-commonly up to 1 m diameter, 30 m height, 200 yr old (up to 600+)
-causes of death: logging,lightning/fire,bark beetles,most common=competition
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why would there be more growth after a fire?
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less competition, fire killed other trees
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____ yr return interval of fire
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5-25
no fuel accumulation
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ponderosa trees often survive fire:
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patchy fire pattern; quick, low intensity; fire resistant stems
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once a tree gets its ____ scar, much easier to record more scars
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first
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why did fires decrease in the 1900s?
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fire supression, *cows-eat grass, less fuel
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where do we get stories about ancient vegetation patterns?
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pollen falls in lakes, sinks and is buried-pollen sandwiches
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pollen shapes can identify___ but not always ____
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genera;species
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_____ leave middens, help age vegetation
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packrats (genus Neotoma)
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what are middens?
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packrats sample vegetation in the area w/in about 100 m of the nest, it all piles up &their urine cements it; dry conditions and urine keep it from decomposing; younger material sits atop older material; scientists sort than use carbon dating
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carbon dating
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measuring the amount of carbon 14 remaining in dead material along with the known half-life of carbon 14 we can estimate when an organism lived
-not accurate for recent deposits or for deposits over 50,000 yrs old
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____ =best guess of ponderosa pine range from 1960's pollen data
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20,000yrs ago
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where was ponderosa pine to be found?
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-only 2 places before 12,000 yrs ago
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In forestry, life history is often referred to as ____; in ecology, it may be called _____
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silvics; autecology
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sprouting is more common with ____ trees
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angiosperm
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why does cone production vary from year to year?
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to keep predators in check
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what is a rammit?
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root produces multiple trees-identical clones
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N. facing slopes in Big Thompson Canyon in CO appear to be wetter&more forested compared to S. facing slopes bc:
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less input of solar energy lowers evaporation from trees and soils, sustaining more water-demanding plants like trees
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incoming solar radiation:
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is absorbed&emitted (shined) by the earth at a longer wavelength
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soil in a selection cut forest stayed warmer at night compared to the clear cut bc:
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tree canopies absorbed longwave radiation, and re-emitted it back to the ground (& maybe some wind mixing was important too)
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fairbanks, alaska, gets the same annual precipitation as Ft. Collins, yet it is surrounded by boreal forests and we're surrounded by short0grass prairie. why?
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fairbanks is much cooler (on average) than ft. collins, creating less evaporative demand on plants
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valley bottoms cool more quickly than sideslopes in the early evening bc of:
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down slope flow of cool air
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cloudy nights are warmer than clear sky nights bc:
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the cold, high altitude atmosphere radiates very little long-wave radiation down toward the earth w/out clouds (clouds reflect radiation back down, like blanket)
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gases such as CO2, N20, and 03:
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absorb radiation from the earth that would be returning to space, causing the gases to warm up
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soil temps in N. minnesota are cooler under spruce, especially in the spring time and summer bc:
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less sunlight reaches the soil surface under spruce, and sunlight is a major source of energy for warming soils
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in ex. 1, the spreadsheet showed that the incoming solar radiation did not vary much with the latitude on sept 15, bc:
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the autumn equinox is near that date, and all points on earth receive 12 hours of sun on the equinox
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summer in ft collins is much warmer than winter. how much more solar energy comes in on a typical summer day than a typical winter day?
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more than 4 times more
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some trees show large variations in seed production(masting) across years bc:
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this is a response to seed-eating animals; years with really high seed production can swamp the ability of seed-eaters to eat them all
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based on annual temp and precip numbers, we would expect the savannas in Krueger nat park, south africa to be closed-canopy forests. grassy landscapes w/ widely-spaced trees are found there instead bc:
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frequent fires kill tree seedlings and small trees, preventing most trees from reaching the canopy
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In 1662, Helmont reported the results of an experiment that sought to determine where the mass of a tree comes from by weighing soil, growing a tree, and determining the net gain in total weight. he concl. the mass of a tree comes mostly from:
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the water in the soil
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100 to 200 million years ago, dinosaurs walked among forests dominated by:
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gymnosperms
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T/F: The stand of aspen "Pando clone" has about 50,000 trees, all of which a "single clone".
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true
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in bright sunlight, a highly shade-tolerant species will be less-competitive than a shade-intolerant species bc:
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it has a loser light saturation point
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basal area in forestry refers to:
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the cross-sectional area of all trees (at about 1.4m height) in an area
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as temp of objects decreases, the radiation they emit:
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increases in wavelength and decreases in energy
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some parts of the world do not have forests bc:
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temps are too cold for trees to thrive and not enough water is available for trees to survive
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if a large region lost the dominant bird species, the dominant tree species, and the large carnivorous animals, the forests would:
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look much like the forests of the eastern us of today, bc these things happened already
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provenance
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the location where seeds were obtained, including genetic implications for local adaptations
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one of the adv. to using packrat middens instead of/in addition to cores from lakebed sediments to infer past vegetation pattern is:
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plant parts from middens can be identified to species, whereas pollen grains in lakebed cores can only be identified to genus
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a strong difference in the evolutionary history of angiosperms and gymnosperms is:
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gymnosperms are largely wind-pollinated, angiosperms largely insect-pollinated
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stands
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homogeneous area
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shade tolerance
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summarized by supplies of water, light, nutrients, temperature conditions
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____is important for identifying the ability of the germinant to survive stressful conditions while becoming established
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seed mass
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how old are aspen clones
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-most close to a century old, maybe a few thousand years
-we used to say that they can cover 10 Ha or more, but recent work w/ genetics say that most still have more than one genotype
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Duke forest and shade tolerance
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dug trenches-cut off comp from other trees for water&nutrients
-shade tolerance not always about shade
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primary growth
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development of a seedling into a large tree (shoot and root extension)
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secondary growth
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expansion of stem and root diameter
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apical meristem
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at the tips of roots and shoots
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lateral meristems
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occur as cylinders of meristematic cells in woody stems and roots
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excurrent form
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strong apical control with terminal shoot growing faster than the lateral branches; adaptation to ice, snow, wind
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decurrent of deliquescent form
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fast growth of lateral branches, forking of main stem (loss of apical control)- for spacing out large deciduous leaves, not best for snow
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____ interacts with soil microbes and provides nutrients to root
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mycorrhizal mantle
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the real uptake typically starts with ____, or ____ for most conifers
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mycorrhizal fungi, ectomycorrhizae
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for many ____ trees, the fungi are _____-actually invading the root cells
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angiosperm, arbuscular mycorrhizae
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____ grows outward from the _____, ____ grows on the inside
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bark; cambium
wood
-a nail would not grow w/ stem
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xylem comes in 3 types:
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-gymno. have tracheids, angio. have vessels: 3-5 mm long
-diffuse-porous spp, 10-100mm long
-ring-porous spp, 100-1000 mm long
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_____stomata/mm2 on the underside of leaves= ____ per square inch
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200-500
125,000-300,000
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with ___ pumped in, guard cells absorb ____, expand, open up; withdraw ___, ____ exits, cells are flaccid and close the opening
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K+, water; K+, water
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roots comprise ___-___% of tree mass
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15-25
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about 1/3 to 1/2 of a tree's growth is in ____ and _____. acquiring water and nutrients is a huge challenge!
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fine roots, mycorrhizal fungi
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water enters roots bc roots have:
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lower water potentials-more neg. than surrounding soild, water transferred to roots from soil
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nutrients enter roots in:
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1) the water stream
2)active uptake-more conc. inside root than outside, so roots must invest energy to take up nutrients
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fxn of stems:
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-conducting system for water
-supporting the canopy
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leaf fxn
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photosynthesis
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there are ___ molecules of Co2 outside the leaf for every ___ molecule of Co2 inside the leaf
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1.5, 1
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H20 inside=____ times H20 outside
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1.5
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what options do leaves and trees have for taking in more CO2 and losing less water?
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-open stomata when it's cool-cool air has a higher relative humidity than hot air, but CO2 conc. is the same in hot or cool air
-improve photosynthesis machiner so teh internal conc. of C02 is lower
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things go from ____ potential to ___ potential
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higher to lower
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boundary layer
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a thin layer of air next to leaf surfaces that doesn't move-gases cross mostly by diffusion; wind reduces the thickness of boundary layer increasing the rate of transfer of gases
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chlorophyll
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linear carbon compounds w/ a porphyrin ring (w/iron&magnesium), absorbs red and blue light better than green
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carotenoids
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linear carbon compounds that absorb light, pass energy to chlorophyll molecules-also protects chlorophyll molecules from getting too much energy. absorption better in blue range, leaving green red &yellow to reflect. provides colors in flowers
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anthocyanins:
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flavonoid compounds, absorb yellow&green light, provide color for flowers and fruits(reflecting red, pink, purple, blue), attracting animals. also reflect UV light and may protect leaves from too much UV. color depends on pH
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what drives the color change in autumn?
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1)genetics
2) day length(shortening days& lengthening nights)
3)temps-warm, sunny days and cool crisp nights enhance color formation
4)wet spring=late leaf color, dry summer=early leaf color
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autumn leaf shedding
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in response to shortening days, the leaves begin to produce less auxin and more ethylene, which hormonally stimulates the production of an "abscission layer" at the base of the petiole
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cold hardiness story
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#1 reason that freezing hurts plants: large ice crystals form w/in cells, and destroy their structure (ice expands). rapid freezing may be less harmful than slow freezing, bc ice crystals stay smaller
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two stages of cold hardening; #1
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in response to shortening days, some chemical moves from the phloem into the overwintering twigs and stems; water is w/drawn from the xylem, sugar accumulates(depressing freezing temp point)
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two stages of cold hardening; #2
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after freezing has commenced (cold nights) trees go for full hardening
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production equation
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resource supply * prop. of supply captured + efficiency of using captured resource - respiration/allocation to other tissues
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GPP
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gross primary production-net photosynthesis of the whole ecosystem
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NPP
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Net primary production=GPP- respiration
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NEP
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Net ecosystem production= NPP-what dies and decomposes
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Eddy flux measures:
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C going in&out of ecosystems- NEP(biomass in soil gives off C too)
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F 311: EXAM 1