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POLS 131: EXAM 1
State of Nature |
Thomas Hobbes. Absence of any form of law and order. All Individuals must take responsibility for their own safety and well being. A world of absolute freedom and absolute insecurity. Humans are selfish and egotistical. Combination of freedom and selfishness sets of a "war of all against all." Life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." |
Thomas Hobbes |
To escape the war of all against all, humans make a contract to empower a sovereign to protect fragile lives. Whatever decision the sovereign makes must be obeyed by subjects. Humans give up freedom, but gain security. |
John Locke |
State of nature is guided by a handful of basic "natural laws:" life, liberty and property." Humans, while not "good," usually respect natural laws, allowing a civil society for form. Selfishness and scarcity , however, do create irreconcilable conflicts. To deal with these conflicts, civil societies form governments (empower sovereigns). Governments protect life and property and enforce agreements. Government role in civil society should be minimal. |
Jean-Jacques Rousseau |
State of nature provides natural equality. Humans are basically good. Society is an effect of social inequality. "Man is born free and everywhere in chains." Cannot go back to the state of nature. How do humans recapture the bliss of the state of nature? All individuals surrender their individual claims in favor of a "general will" or common good. New social contract prioritizes collective prosperity over individual prosperity. |
Values |
Each conception of human group activity prioritizes a different set of values. Hobbes: Security of one's life. Locke: Security of one's natural rights. Rousseau: Security of natural equality. What the society values and the need for the protection of these values will provide a framework for action and organization. |
Security |
In all three conceptions of the sate of nature, government is formed for the purposes of security. In order to provide that security, groups need to be able to deploy power. Without some kind of power, there is no security. |
Power |
"The ability to affect outcomes" Robert Keohane. "The ability to get something done" Van Belle and Mash. "Who gets what, when, where, and why" Harold Lasswell. |
Politics |
Creation and contestation of human values. The deployment of power in pursuit and protection of these values. The development of institutions to govern society by these values. |
International Politics |
Political environment is anarchic. Units are states which form themselves into alliances. Laws are non-binding and cannot be enforced. |
Domestic Politics |
Political environment is hierarchic. Units are citizens which form themselves into factions and coalitions. Laws are binding and are enforced through some kind of compliance mechanism. |
Anarchy |
Absence of overarching authority to make and enforce formal laws. Does NOT necessarily mean chaos of a lack of order. Actors and institutions create "governance." |
Hierarchy |
Political environment is presided over by a sovereign. Sovereign can be an individual (king), group (aristocracy), or the people (democracy). All subjects of the sovereign must comply with laws on pain of punishment or other sanction. |
States and Anarchy |
Despite periods of world empire, anarchy has been the most common global political environment. In this period of anarchy, states have emerged as the dominant political "groups." States are the best way to provide security and project power without a global rules or ruling institution. |
Levels of Politics |
American Politics. Comparative Politics. International Politics. |
American Politics |
study of politics within the united states. |
Comparative Politics |
Study of politics within nations. |
International Politics |
Study of politics among nations. |
Problem Solving Approach |
Takes the world as it is given. Treats existing objects, ideas, and institutions as natural and timeless. Treats existing values, principles, and morals as right and proper. Problems are seen as the result of certain elements in the existing system malfunctioning and needing to be fixed. Solutions are pursued via modest reform, tinkering around the edges, or troubleshooting. Change, such that it happens, always occurs slowly and incrementally. |
Critical Approaches |
Treats the world as contingent and in flux. Treats existing objects, ideas, and institutions as historically constructed entities. Questions the validity of existing values, principles, and morals. Problems are seen to be the result of a system that fails to deliver on its promises and claims. Solutions are pursued via the complete destruction of the existing system and the reconstruction of a new one based on different principles. Change is immediate, radical, and dramatic. |
Social Inequality: Britain vs France |
18th Century: Age of Enlightenment. Power is concentrated in elite social classes (nobility, clergy, aristocracy). |
Option 1: Great Britain and Problem Solving |
Edmund Burke: "we place our trust in the centuries old traditions of the king, the nobility, and the Church." Passed series of Parliamentary Reform acts that slowly granted the right to vote to all male citizens. Preserved existing royal and ecclesiastical institutions. Slow pace of reform: 52 years to grant full male suffrage. Lingering inequality: royal privilege and prerogative remained in place. |
Great Reform Bill of 1832 |
Suffrage for all landholders |
Reform Act of 1867 |
Expanded suffrage to adult males of certain monetary worth. |
Reform Act of 1884 |
Granted suffrage to all males regardless of social class. |
Option 2: France and Critical Approaches |
Saint-Simon: "we will remake the world in a new image:" French Revolution breaks out in 1789. Within a very short timeframe, the king and much of the nobility are killed, church and royal land are seized, and a radical republican government is established in Paris. Radical Change has consequences. Social Chaos (reign of terror) breaks out across France beginning 1793. |
July 1789 |
Storming of Bastille |
August 1789 |
Declaration of RIghts of Man and Citizen |
September 1789 |
Seizure of church property |
August 1793 |
King Louis XVI is executed |
Financial Crisis - Problem Solving |
Financial system was working fine until it was corrupted by the proliferation of sub-prime mortgages. Had these mortgages never been made, system would be functioning well right now and there would be no recession. Remove Corrupted elements (derivatives market). |
Financial Crisis - Critical Approach |
Boom bust cycle is a fundamental component of market based finance capitalism. There is no way of eliminating this flaw within the current financial system. Solution is to dissolve current market based apparatus and replace with centrally planned model. |
Prioritization |
Identifying one problem as more dire and in need of greater attention then others. |
Global Agenda |
The selection of a set of problems as requiring the highest priority by the majority of states. |
Problems on the Agenda |
Terrorism, Nuclear Proliferation, Climate Change, Spreading of Democracy, Global Economic Crisis. |
Paradox of War and Politics |
Human beings tend to be social creatures that rely upon each other for protection and mutual support. Constantly fighting (and killing) each other. |
Structure if International Politics |
Politics at the transnational level occurs in a state of anarchy. No formal legal institutions to protect life, enforce contracts and laws, or safeguard property and well being. No appeal to higher authority. |
Security Dilemma |
Build up of strength by one actor creates fear and suspicion on the part of other states. Fear and suspicion compel other actors to build up their strength. Cooperation becomes difficult and conflict becomes more likely, eventually leading to war (often through a minor, insignificant event). Security competition results from anarchy and world of relative gains. Anarchy rewards defection to a greater degree then cooperation. Greater damage done to opponent through defection (and greater potential for damage caused by opponent on oneself through cooperation). |
Prisoner's Dilemma |
Two thieves are caught in the act of theft. Police isolate and interrogate each thief individually. Thieves must weigh the costs of cooperating with each other (by not talking to police) vs. capitulating to the police (rat out their partner). Greatest possible reward available only if player chooses to defect (rat out partner). Worst possible outcome possible only if player chooses to cooperate (remain quiet). Even if both players defect (rat each other out), players have avoided worst possible outcome. |
Prisoners Dilemma: 4 Possibilities |
1. Freedom (DC): Defect (rat out) from partner, capitulate to police, and hope partner cooperates by staying quiet. 2. 5 years (CC): Both partners cooperate with each other (do not rat each other out) and do not capitulate to police. 3. 10 years (DD): Both partners defect (rat each other out) and capitulate to police. 4. Death (CD): Cooperate with partner, but have partner defect (rat you out) ad capitulate to police. |
Prisoners Dilemma: Preference Orders |
Sequence of four possible outcomes ranked form most preferred to least preferred . DC= 1, CC= 2, DD= 3, CD= 4. DC>CC>DD>CD. |
History of the Peloponnesian War |
Athens vs. Sparta (security Dilemma). Role of leagues and delegations. Brutal nature of ancient warfare. Fall of Athenian Empire. |
Melian Dialogue |
Justice is the interest of the strong: "Might makes right." Equally powerful actors may compromise. Weak actors are vulnerable to the whims of the strong. Prudence is the greatest virtue. |
Hubris |
Feeling of invincibility and impermeability among the powerful. Lapses in judgement , ill-preparation, and overconfidence. Result is a catastrophic failure. |
The Fall of Athens |
Sicilian Expedition: 415-413 BC. Attempt to overextend Spartan military. Ferocious local resistance. Athenian Defeat and over throw of democratic government 411 BC. |
Thucydides: A Strategic Guide |
Outbreak of War: Prisoner's Dilemma. Melian Dialogue: "Strong do what they will, the weak suffer what they must." Sicilian Expedition: Beware of Hubris brought about by excessive unilateral action. |
Sovereignty |
Authority to manage internal and external affairs. Must be both internally and externally recognized. |
Security |
Protect lives of citizens, mediate conflicts, and enforce basic rights and keep order. |
Legitimacy |
Recognized as "legal"bearers of violence. |
Nation States |
Political entity that merges a particular population with a particular territory. Often feature or attempt to create a distinct culture and ethnic identity (language, dress, cuisine, artistic style, personality). No such thing as a "pure nation state" (all states are full of ethnic and cultural "contradictions"). |
History and Nation States |
Historical creations in that they inherent traits from previous political arrangements. Contain traits of empires, medieval manors, the Catholic Church, as well as develop attributes unique to themselves. |
Intergovernmental Organizations |
Only sovereign states can be members of IGOs. States that join organizations are obligated to abide by specific rules of conduct. States are under no obligation to join IGOs and can leave at any time. Governing institutions that facilitate state cooperation. (UN European Union) |
Developmental Institutions |
Organizations that facilitate development of poor nations. (IMF, World Bank). |
Security Institutions |
Organizations that facilitate security for its members. (NATO, SEATO). |
Multinational Corporations and Banks |
Non-state profit seeking organizations. Responsible for the production of economic and financial infrastructure in the world. Through headquartered in one state, operation in multiple states simultaneously. Examples: Honda, Mcdonalds Disney. |
Non-Governmental Organizations |
non-state transnational voluntary and activist organizations. Work toward a specific political goal (reduction of poverty, protection of environment, free international trade). Totality of groups often referred to as global civil society. |
Individual Actors |
Individuals whose power and influence affect outcomes at the global level. Though citizens of a specific country, are recognized and lauded by people around the world. Examples include: the Pope, Bill Gates or Bono. |
War and Morality |
State emerges as a way to protect basic values (morality) that constitute the community. Practice of politics at the global level often requires violation of that morality (Hubris). |
Can Morality and Prudence be Balanced? |
Skeptical view: no. State moralist: yes- state preservation IS a fundamental value. Cosmopolitans: no- states exist to preserve humans, not other states. |
Skeptics |
Security requires compromises on values. States must constantly strive to maximize their power by pursuing their "national interests." National interests are those things that increase your power. |
US/Iraq Relations |
US/Iraq relations friendly through must of the 1980s despite use of chemical weapons and attack on US warship. Iraq balanced a hostile Iran. In US interest to be allied with Saddam. National interest of the US shifted from 1980-1990 and 1990-2003. Policies toward Iraq shifted as a result. Policies do not contradict since they represent two separate calculations of national interest. |
Power > Values |
Criteria for state behavior should be guided by what is necessary, not by what is "right." Changes should only seek to alter what is possible, not what is desired. Utopia and idealism are to be avoided at all costs. |
State Moralists |
Certain fundamental rules of state interaction can be followed and are part of state's value system. Existence of "norms." Territorial integrity, diplomatic immunity, sovereignty. |
Power = Values |
Only states have rights, not individuals. Obligations do not exist for humanitarian or environmental issues. Individual rights are not or imperfectly conceptualized acknowledged. |
Cosmopolitans |
States embrace a full moral viewpoint. States are obligated to honor individual rights as much as sovereign rights. International Convention on the Protection of Genocide. |
Rwanda |
Rwanda Genocide 1994. Non-intervention by western powers. Treaties (PPG) obligated intervention. "These were genocidal acts." |
Kosovo |
1999. NATO violates sovereignty to end ethnic cleansing of province. "We didn't want another Rwanda in Europe" Bill Clinton. |
Power < Values |
States have obligation to protect "stateless" people (asylum seekers, refugees, illegal immigrants). Intervention and violations of sovereignty are justified. "Let justice be done through the heavens fall!" |
The Problem of War |
Anarchy and the security dilemma explains many examples of the problem of war, but not all of them. Plenty of examples exist where states do not live in fear with each other and enjoy robust relationships of cooperations (US and Canada). |
Multiple Levels of Explanation- Individual |
War is cause by variables at the level of the single decision makers. Individual heads of state pursue war for their own personal reasons. Key decision makers make certain judgements or mistakes. Use of psychology to uncover hidden motivations and rationalities. |
Multiple Levels of Explanation: State |
War is caused by variables at the level of national institutions or culture. Institutions, bureaucracies, and foreign policy, establishment as the source of war. Cultures of the state and its society. Use of sociological and cultural explanations. |
Multiple Levels of Explanation: System |
War is caused by variables at the transnational. International systems of anarchy or hierarchy are the source of war. Explore relationship or polarity or distribution of power. Use of macroeconomics or structural explanations. |
Goals and Instruments |
Variations in state goals may create an outcome different than what security dilemma predicts. Variations in how the state deploys power may create different outcomes than what the security dilemma predicts. |
State Goals |
Protection and security will always be one goal of state, but it will not be the only goal. States will also pursue: economic goals (wealth and abundance), social goals (harmony among groups of people), cultural goals (creating vibrant artistic and creative environments), revolutionary goals (radical transformations of the current system). |
State Instruments |
Military instruments are obviously important and indispensable. States may also use non-coercive instruments such as: cooperation (diplomacy, international organization participation), persuasion (through propaganda or aid assistance), "Seduction" (attractive political practices and culture). |
Explanations for Cooperation |
Paternalism. Liberalism. |
Paternalism |
Kings and princes that lead states interact with each other on a personal basis, which facilitates cooperation. Certain individuals are "chosen by god" to rule others. Worthiness to rule is determined by membership in an elite social class. Title of "sovereign" grants absolute power to king and a right to non-interference. |
Liberalism |
States adopt enlightenment principles to pursue mutual gains and avoid mutual bloodshed. States can identify places where interaction can create mutual benefits. Mutual benefits can eclipse security dilemma. Institutions can facilitate cooperation. |
War and Paternalism |
Goals of states depends on goals of kings and queens and other royals who rule the state. Instruments other then war were available for leaders: diplomacy, alliances, concerts, etc. War in the age of of kings, though frequent, was surprisingly limited and restrained. |
The Legacy of the Enlightenment |
The universe was guided by objective laws. Humanity, through reason, could discover these laws. Discovery of these laws could create frameworks for creating peaceful societies without war or conflict. Humanity can change the conditions it finds itself (end the security dilemma). Created dramatic changes to how states set goals and interacted with one another. State goals shifted from solely protection to wealth generation and pursuit of perpetual peace. State instruments became more diverse and more technologically advanced. |
Adam Smith: Wealth of the Nations- Liberalism |
War comes about through imperialism. Comparative advantage. Trade creates mutual material gains. All have prosperity as a goal as use trade as an instrument. |
Immanuel Kant: Perpetual Peace- Liberalism |
Republican states tend not to fight with each other due to mutual recognition of legitimacy. Trade can create mutual gains. Democratic peace hypothesis. All states have republicanism as a goal and pursue it through institutions. |
The 19th Century |
The period between 1789 and 1914 sees an interesting mixture of paternalist, liberal, and occasionally communist states intermix in Europe. With rare exception, systemic level explanations cannot account for the conflicts in this period. War, though present, was infrequent and restrained. There were no "Melian massacres." |
Carl Von Clausewitz |
Carl Von Clausewitz Officer in Prussian army in the late 18th century and early 19th century. Fought against the revolutionary armies of France under Napoleon between 1806 and 1815. Born into middle class family but married into high aristocracy. |
On War |
Reflection on the causes, strategies, and meanings of war. Was never completely finished- what survives is a collection of drafts of the intended work. Remains a key work on the place of war in politics and society. Many of the strategic parts of the book are used by business schools. |
Ideal War |
War that is fought without restraint in its pure and more extreme form. War for war's sake. War is a battle between two inflexible value systems. War deploys all the destructive capability available at the time. War mobilizes all economic and social resources. War is a single, isolated event. Belligerents engage once, with the loser vanquished forever and winner triumphed forever. Previous history between two belligerents is meaningless. |
Limits of the Prisoner's Dilemma |
"Players" play the game only once. Inability to communicate, negotiate or bargain. Inability to assess characteristics and virtues of other player. |
Shadow of the Future |
Future cannot be determined with precision. Multiple plays of the "game" may change the preferences orders, and pursue cooperation. War is not completely avoided, but occurs within the context of actors, goals, instruments, preferences, environment context, and mutual histories. |
Real War |
War that is constrained by material limits (competence of generals, quality of soldiers, natural barriers, and political ends). War takes place between two states with multiple ideals of varying values. Amount of force states use to defend various values indicates their specific value. Amount of mobilization of resources also indicates the importance of values. Wars can be (and indeed should be) limited by the conditions in which they are fought. Quality of soldiers and equipment, limitations of terrain, and degree of importance of objectives can all limit the intensity and scale of war. |
Politics as the Originator and Mitigator of War |
War begins for political reasons: a particular values is worth the effort to mobilize forces and deploy violent force. Intensity of war is limited by the relative value of the objective (goal). Less values goals will create less intense goals and vice versa. |
Politics and War |
More than any other factor, the policy goals of states limit the spread and intensity of war. War is thus an instrument like any other political instrument. When the political goal is met, war ends. War emerges as a way to manage relationships between states. In anarchy, with no world government, war is a type of interaction between states to settle disputes that can't be settled through other instruments. |
War System |
Wars of the middle ages and early modern era up to 1914 were limited in nature and rarely required mass mobilization. Conflicts often comprised of personal disputes between kings and princes of various states and principalities. Armies rarely comprised free citizens and were made up of mercenaries. Wars tended to be less violent, or short duration, and often featured as much diplomacy as actual fighting. The decision to go to war was not a heavy moral choice, but one of many equally remarkable policy choices to a given ruler. |
Mercenaries and "Freelancers" |
Individuals who receive payment for fighting on behalf of a principality or kingdom. Object of conflict was not important, only that the hiring ruler pay his salary. When insufficient troops or sailors were available, men were "pressed" into service. |
Counterfactuals |
Politics is not a discipline where claims can be tested in a laboratory. Claims not practically applied can only be tested in the abstract. Change a variable from a particular situation and attempt to determine how the outcome would change. |
Clausewitz and War |
"War is a continuation of politics by other means." Political goals limit the scale and destructiveness of war. War is not inherently "evil." War is not something that needs to be ended. |
The Great War |
Total killed in action: 15 million. End of Russia, Austria, and German Empires. Introduction of new Great Powers: United States and Japan. |
Costs of Great War |
Germany: 1,770,000. Russia: 1,700,000. France: 1,350,000. Austria-Hungary: 1,200,000. United States: 116,000. |
Explanations of World War I |
Systemic: Failure of Balance of Power. National: Rise of nationalism and democratization of politics. Systemic: Creation of international economic system of competing imperial powers. |
Balance of Power |
All great powers in the system check the growth and power of each other. Increase in military power by one actor results in increases by all others. Balance powers prevents the temptation to seek advantage or act aggressively (incentive to cooperate greater than incentive to defect). |
Balance of Power: Multi-Polar |
Three of more powers form complex balance relationship. |
Balance of Power: Bi-Polar |
Two great powers for a simple balance relationship. |
Balance of Power: Uni-Polar |
One great unbalanced power dominates globe. |
Fortunate Balance of Power |
Power resources naturally distributed between various states- states do not "create" balance of power of their own violation. Disruption in "natural" balance creates instability. |
Artificial Balance of Power (Athenians) |
States pursue balance of power in order to delay or buy time for a later engagement. Natural balances that become lopsided can be corrected by state action. |
Constructed Balance of Power |
Balance of power as a tool of statecraft. States and their leaders create rules that construct a multi-polar balance of power. Balance of power occurs regardless of natural distribution. |
Structure and World War I |
Instead of an isolated war between two powers, the new structural arrangements committed all six powers to war. Some other structural form may not have resulted in "world war." |
A New 21st Century Structure |
China and Brazil are negotiating closer economic and cultural arrangements. China enjoys good relations with Venezuela, Bolivia, and much of Africa. United States has begun closer relations with India, including the sharing of civilian nuclear technology. |
War Prior to 1914 |
No automatic weapons, only carbines and breech-loading rifles. Combat contest between men on foot or on horseback and artillery sport. "Cult of the Offensive." |
Revolution in Military Affairs |
Machine gun. Tank. Airplane. Chemical Weapons (Mustard Gas). |
A New Kind of War |
From "Cult of the Offensive" to Trench Warfare. Chances for individual heroism no longer possible given types of weapons. |
Interaction Capacity |
New weapons had ability to destroy cities and alter terrain of the earth. Aircraft added a third dimension to conflict. Denser and larger battle areas. |
Nationalism |
A bond of solidarity and mutual affection that transcend all other social divides. Mutual responsibility to cooperate in bestowing the blessings of the state and protect it from any threats. Often (but no always) includes the demonization of an "other" enemy nation or people. |
Rise of Nationalism |
Legacy of the enlightenment (democratization an entrepreneurship). As political power is shared by more people, responsibility for protecting that power becomes a mass responsibility. Nationalism militarizes the masses. |
Nationalism and World War I |
Austria-Hungary did not enjoy a powerful binding nationalist identity. Despite being part of Austria-Hungary, Serbia (site of Ferdinand's murder) war culturally and linguistically similar to Russia. France, Germany, and UK all had powerful nationalist identities. |
An Alternate "Reading" of World War I |
Vladimir Lenin: Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism. World War I was the result of economic and social causes, not political and military causes. Great power rivalry the result of the need for profit by ruling social classes, not states seeking military power. |
Lenin |
Foundation of theory built and assumption of Marx. The most important division in society is between social classes (Bourgeois and Proletariat). Division of world into nation-states merely superficial. Most powerful elements of society are industrialists and bankers seeking profit. States are "executive committees" for these ruling classes. States manage economy on behalf of ruling class and mitigate social instability created by the disparities in wealth (Welfare protects the wealthy). |
The Economy and Social Conflict |
Industrialists and bankers make profit by mass producing commodities (items sold for profit). When markets are saturated, profits decline, workers are laid off, and social instability results. State intervenes in order to protect ruling classes and reduce risk of revolution. |
State Intervention |
Ruling class seeks to maintain and increase production by exploiting overseas markets. Industrialists and bankers pressure state to forcibly open up foreign markets that are resistant to outside commodities and capital. States use military force to open up markets and keep them open. |
Dilemma of Imperialism |
So long as new territories existed for annexation and exploitation, world would remain at peace. Ceasing race for colonies would create economic stagnation and risk revolution at home. Continued "scramble" for colonies would exhaust available territory, creating conflict between Great Powers and risking war. |
Imperialism and World War I |
Governments and industrialists cooperated in opening and maintaining overseas markets. Great Powers cooperated in "dividing the world up between them" through imperialism. When all territory was distributed, conflict (such as naval arms races) erupted between states which led to World War I. |
Lenin and World War I |
Capitalism creates its own crisis and the conditions for its own destruction. Solution to this crisis is a new economic outlook based on planning rather than a market. Communist revolution: Workers of the world unite rather than killing each other on the battlefield. |
Financial Crisis and World Conflict |
States may raise tariffs on foreign products to boost domestic industries and to raise money to pay for bailouts (and thereby avoid raising income tax). Foreign products become more expensive, creating economic stagnation in other countries. |
Aftermath of World War I |
Failure of Balance of Power. New dynamics of war changed it from "politics by other means" to "unacceptable policy." Move to "outlaw" war and the attempt to enforce that abolition. |
Collective Security |
Rejection of war as legitimate foreign policy. Violation on treaty by one state results in sanctions by all other states. International organizations act as adjudicator of conflicts. |
Shift From Power to Intention |
Collective security attempted to eliminate war by curbing state aggression. International law would limit state sovereignty. Imperial powers would give up their colonies. |
Instruments of Collective Security |
Wilson's 14 Points (Right of Self-Determination). Kellogg-Briand Pact (Outlawed war as a state policy). League of Nations. |
Key Structural Elements of the League of Nations |
All states equal partners regardless of size and strength. Leagues must unanimously declare an action "aggressive" (each state had a veto on League policy). League could call for measures short of war. |
Shortcomings of League of Nations |
Absence of major player (Rejection of US Senate). Refusal of European states to give up their colonies (Italy invades Ethiopia). Disinterest in punishing violent aggressors (Japan invades China). |
Why Did Collective Security Not Work |
Despite banning of war, states must constantly be ready to fight. States must be prepared to fight allies and partners- cannot opt out of an action. Balance of power can be re-constructed through institutions. |
Power Still Matters |
State continue to calculate their interests in terms of "national interests" rather than "international morality." Cooperation and non-aggression require a shift in state identity, not simply a platform for interaction without specific rules. |
NATO |
Regional collective security arrangement constructed to ensure the security of North atlantic allies against threat of Soviet Union. Prevent conflicts among members by integrating military structures of its members. Protects integrity of member states- attack on one is attack on all. |
Structure of NATO |
All members are institutionally equal. United States retains certain privileges as most powerful member. Organization's chief military officer will always be an American. |
United Nations and Security Council |
Membership requires a commitment to non-aggression and international law. Attempts to mitigate conflicts and reduce international tension. Attack one state does not constitute an attack on all members unless so declared by Security Council. |
Structure of Security Council |
Twenty total members. Five permanent members and fifteen temporary members. Passage of any resolution requires a majority vote of all twenty members with no vetoes from permanent members (temporary members have no veto). |
Security Council |
United States, China, United Kingdom, Russia, and France. All (except China) were largest powers after World War II and possessed nuclear weapons soon after. Attempts to overcome problems of League of Nations by reflecting the international balance of power in its structure. No automatic trigger for war: all force must be authorized by council. |
The Gulf War |
Iraq invades Kuwait in 1990-an obvious act of aggression and violation of sovereignty. Security Council authorizes force to evict Iraq from Kuwait (Resolution 660). Coalition of nations successfully pushes Iraq our of Kuwait. Brian Urquhart former UN undersecretary general, called the Persian Gulf War, "the first exercise in the unanimous collective security that we have been talking about since the days of Woodrow Wilson." |
US Invasion of Iraq |
US seeks to invade Iraq to disarm Saddam Hussein. Security Council does not give authorization as it would violate Iraqi sovereignty. After being denied authorization, US invades Iraq anyways. |
Future of Security Council |
Ineffective against Great Powers. Does not accurately reflect distribution of power in today's world (India, Germany, Japan, Brazil). |
International Regimes |
A collection of treaties that seek to establish and "routinize" a set of international norms on a single issue. Regimes do not create formal organizations (as in the case of NATO or the UN). Requires less state participation for creating, but lack effective enforcement mechanism. |
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty |
Non-nuclear signatories pledge to not develop or deploy nuclear weapons. Nuclear signatories pledge to reduce and eventually eliminate nuclear arsenals. States that seek a nuclear capability choose to not sign treaty or "unsign" it. Most states have signed the treaty or voluntarily accede to it if they haven't fully ratified it. Iran and North Korea have withdrawn from the Treaty. India, Pakistan, and Israel have refused to sign it. Treaty does not treat every state as equal and grants privileges to Great Powers who have acquired nuclear technology. States that withdraw or refuse to sign are not punished or. |
World War II and Total War |
War no longer a tool of the state, but a "way of life" and a fundamental value of the state. Products and processes of rationality put to irrational purposes. Endless search for an enemy. |
War and Politics |
"War is the extension of politics by other means" Karl Von Clauswitz. Politics is a public activity to settle disputes among states national interests. Violence is directed at the state and military apparatus of the enemy nation. "Politics is the continuation of war by other means" Michel Foucault. Politics is a private activity to regulate the values of the personal (correct race, sex, genetic traits, behaviors, etc.). Violence in directed at the bodies and minds of groups and individuals. |
Totalitarianism and the "End of Politics" |
Politics as the total regulation of human activity. All thoughts, ideas, and behaviors are prefabricated. No spaces for creativity, dissent or any other autonomous activity. |
The Rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party |
Germany blamed for starting World War I. Economic precariousness. Total lack of political, economic, and social security. |
Mein Kampf |
A nation's strength rests on the purity of its blood (genes). Mixing racial stock creates weaker human beings and inhibits the development of the species. States of mixed blood are weaker and ultimately must succumb to superior (racially pure) states. The Aryan race is the highest racial and genetic manifestation of human progress. It is the Aryan's obligation, as the superior race, to assume responsibility for future progress in the world. The greatest threat to (the opposite of) Aryan supremacy is the Jew. |
Total War |
Threat to the state did not come from another state power, but from groups of people with the wrong blood. Locations of these groups of people do not conform to state boundaries. War must occur everywhere and at all times. Enemies everywhere means military forces must be deployed everywhere. Society becomes militarized, distinction between police and military blurs. Citizens require constant monitoring and their identities must be scrutinized. |
Effects of Total War Mentality |
Irrational rationality. Rebellion against enlightenment. Banality of evil. |
Irrational Rationality |
Doctors killed rather than healed ( Medical professionals oversaw most exterminations in Nazi death camps). Scholarship obscured the truth rather than unveiled it (Phrenology). Industrialization created mass destruction rather than mass production. |
Anti-Enlightenment |
It was only through the advances in industrialization that allowed the Nazis to kill so many so quickly. Applications of reason (Enlightenment) made the world worse rather than better. |
Bureaucracy and Anti Enlightenment |
Bureaucracy is designed to make mass politics more efficient. Bureaucracy was key to the successful implementation of concentration camps. Adolph Eichmann: Ideal Nazi Bureaucrat. |
Banality of Evil: Adolph Eichmann |
"Hitler ordered the extermination of the Jews, but it was Eichmann who actually brought the extermination about." Eichmann created the process of identifying, collecting, transporting, and eradicating Jews in the German occupied territories. Even when the end of the war was no longer in doubt, Eichmann sustained to supervise camp activities. |
Adolph Eichmann |
Eichmann and his associates were ordinary people with ordinary lives. They worked in dreary, uninteresting offices pushing papers and typing reports. Though conscious of what they were doing, the banality of their work removed is nefarious character. |
Eichmann in Jerusalem |
On trial for crimes against the Jewish state, Eichmann defended himself by saying "her was just following orders." Eichmann was executed on May 31, 1962. His story epitomizes what Hannah Arendt called "the banality of evil." |
The Banality of Evil |
War in the 20th (and 21st) century is as much the product of office work as it is fighting on the battlefield. Evil looks ordinary, unremarkable, dull, and even boring. The offices that oversaw the Holocaust look similar to the offices of the DMV. |
War in the 20th Century |
Ultimate was making capacities (destruction of planet) have been reached by human beings with nuclear weapons. Destructive abilities of nuclear weapons render any conflict a potential spark that ends all of humanity. Employment of the total war paradigm to all humanity (Triumph of Hitler over Clauswitz). |
Paradox of the Nuclear Age |
Despite having developed ability to destroy the planet, this "doomsday" capability cannot be used. Superpower war is impossible (without destroying life on earth). Development of strategies to resist total war (Mao). |
Rise of the Superpower |
More then mere great power, superpowers greatly exceed the capabilities of their rivals and possess nuclear weapons. Control of influence is hemispheric or global. Division of the planet into "worlds." |
1st World |
United States, Western Europe, and others Allies. Highly developed economies. Democratic and Liberal. "The free world." |
2nd World |
Soviet Union, China, Eastern Europe, and other allies. Less developed economies, but industrialized. Authoritarian and socialist. |
3rd World |
Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, and anyone else. Underdeveloped or subsidence economies. Mix of democracy and authoritarianism, liberalism and socialism. |
Superpower Conflict |
Nuclear weapons prevented two superpowers from engaging in direct conflict: two alternatives emerge. Containment and Proxy War: superpower conflicts and wars in third world designed to limit the expansion of the others side. Superpowers were confronted with "proxy armies" in conflict zones. Deterrence: Efforts to "outbuild" rival nuclear capacities in order to dissuade aggressive attack. |
Containment |
American strategy designed to limit expansion of Soviet power and influence beyond its post war status. George Kennan's Long Telegram: "Wherever it is considered timely and promising, efforts will be made to advance official limits of Soviet power." Dean Acheson: Conflict is not merely with the Soviet Union, but with communism itself (pressure from McCarthy). Truman Doctrine: Resist all communist expansion wherever it occurs in the world. NSC-68: Build up of US conventional forces to confront Soviet Union and Communism. |
Key Moments in Containment |
Greece: 1947. Korean War: 1950-1953. Vietnam: 1955-1973. Cuban Missile Crisis: 1962. Afghanistan: 1979-1989. |
Korean War |
North Korean Invasion (tacitly supported by Stalin) June 1950. Deepest North Korean incursion: Pohang-Dong September 14, 1950. Gen. MacArthur lands in Inchon: September 15, 1950. Furthest UN advance: Yalu River November 1950. Stalemate at 38th Parallel after Chinese intervention. Successful act of collective security: Resolution 83 condemned act and authorized military response (Taiwan held Chinese seat and Soviet Union was boycotting Security Council). First test of Truman Doctrine. Set tone for later Cold War. |
Vietnam War |
1954: French defeat at Dien Bien Phu. 1956: US advisers begin to arrive. 1964: Gulf of Tonkin incident. 1968: Tet Offensive. 1969: US bombs Cambodia; begins drawing down US troops. 1973: Completed withdrawal. 1975: Fall of Saigon. Domino theory of Intervention: allowing one state to become communist will result in several other states falling as well. Contradictions of containment: stopping the spread of communism or preventing national self determination (neo-imperialism). |
Afghanistan |
1979: Soviet Union invades to bolster crumbling communist regime. 1985: Formation of Mujahedeen partisan group to resist Soviet occupation. 1986: US begins arming and supporting mujahedeen, including one Osama Bin Laden. 1989: Soviet withdraw, civil war begins. 1994: Civil war ends when Taliban gain control of capital. Most successful containment operation of Cold War. Contradiction of Soviet expansion: foreign intervention always arouses local resistance, whether in nationalist form, or religious form. Seeds of the war on terror. |
Nuclear Deterrence |
Deterring enemy aggression with the threat of overwhelming retaliation for hostile act. Shift from bouts of physical strength to bouts of psychological strength, Shift from balance of power to balance of terror: Al-Qaeda has nothing on the Cold War. Threats must be credible with regards to capability. Threats must be credible with regards to doctrine. Threats must be credible with regards to will. |
Nuclear Capability |
Sufficient number of weapons. Protection from massive first strike. Capable of being delivered to targets and effecting sufficient damage. |
Nuclear Arms Racing |
United States leads in first half of Cold War. USSR leads for second half. Apex of race: 1987 (approximately 70,000 nuclear warheads). Ability to destroy the planet thousands of times over. |
Land Based Ballistic Missiles |
Can fly over the north pole and strike target in 30 minutes. Present day missiles have equivalent destructive power of one million Hiroshima bombs. |
Bombers |
Nuclear bombs on aircraft can be moved in case of surprise attack. airborne bombs tend to be less powerful. For much of Cold War, bombs were one permanent alert. |
Submarines |
Nuclear powered submarines can submerge indefinitely. Can hid deep beneath the ocean. Sub-based missiles are as powerful as land based missiles. |
Mobile Land Missiles |
Only used by the Soviet Union. Missile carriers would drive around Siberian wilderness avoiding detection. Served same function as submarines and added another layer of nuclear deterrence. |
Nuclear Triad |
Missiles and bombers provide deterrence, submarines provide second strike capability. Submarines can hid at the bottom of the ocean and can launch missiles from anywhere in the world. Even if enemy is able to launch surprise attack, hidden sub based missiles provide a deterrent. |
Nuclear Weapons Capability |
Destructive capacity of nuclear weapons measured in kilotons (1000 tons of TNT). Hiroshima bomb (4 kilotons). Minuteman III (3-4 megatons). Hydrogen bomb (in excess of 10 megatons). |
Capability |
In addition to more powerful warheads, modern missiles can deploy multiple warheads simultaneously. One missile can hit multiple targets in the same area. Each warhead has a blast power of at least one megaton. |
Nuclear Doctrine: MAD |
Mutually Assured Destruction: Any nuclear attack will be met with such a massive nuclear counter-strike that the destruction of both belligerents is guaranteed. Pro-dominant doctrine of the cold war. |
Nuclear Doctrine: NUTS |
Nuclear Use Theory. How to fight and win a nuclear war. Destroying civilization maybe the only way to protect freedom and democracy. |
Test of Will: Cuban Missile Crisis |
Stand off between US and USSR over deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba. Closest superpowers came to initiation a nuclear exchange. Resulted in a thaw in US/USSR relations. Placement of Soviet Missiles in Cuba gave US less then 10 minutes of warning in case of launch. US initiates blockade of Cuba to prevent Soviet access to its missiles and forces already deployed there. Negotiated settlement between Kennedy and Khruschev: USSR removes missiles from Cuba, USA removes missiles from Turkey. Any Soviet ships running the blockade would be attacked. Attack on Soviet ships may have escalated conflict to a nuclear exchange. Soviet ships did not violate blockade. |
Nuclear Policy Today |
US continues to deploy nuclear submarines and had bombers and missiles on standby. Russia also has same capability, but is less intricate to US. China has basic nuclear triad, but is inferior to US and Russia. |
Paradox of the Nuclear Age |
Despite having developed ability to destroy the planet, this doomsday capability cannot be used. Superpower war is impossible (without destroying all life on earth). Guerilla war more frequent. |
Low Intensity Conflict and Guerilla War |
Hitler and the Nazi regime made it a crime to be of a certain identity. Social and ideological groups no longer had the option of remaining apolitical (someone was going to come after you). Politics re-enters the picture. |
Mao Zedong on Guerilla Warfare |
On Guerilla Warfare: Tract of creating local Chinese resistance to Japanese imperial expansion before World War II. Tactics also used in Chinese Civil war between 1946-1950. The people at large must be united by a common political goal that serves as a foundation for national unity. Adherence to ideology comes through indoctrination and propaganda. Guerilla fighters must be recruited from this population thoroughly steeped in the political ideology and activity of the cause. Indoctrinations is necessary given the legacies of Hitler: Either the people unify and fight or divide and die. Individual freedom is less important than national unity and survival. |
On Guerilla Warfare |
Present day China still abides (to some extent) by this ideology. Restrained by its objective of national liberation and alleviation of oppression. Violence is not a tool for the mere solving of problems, but a means for populations to ensure their survival against larger, more powerful forces. Restraint amid war distinguishes a "people's" war with a "regular war." |
Other Aspects of Mao's Conception of War |
Self disciplined army: fighters steeped in ideology provide their own discipline. Enemy lines: People of a common ideology can survive despite foreign occupation and can continue war behind enemy lines. Unity of military and politics. |
Vietnam |
Despite being an inferior fighting force, Viet Cong able to resist American presence in South Vietnam. Tet Offensive of 1968. Though successful at fighting an insurgent war, Viet Cong unable to defeat US in regular war. |
Afghanistan |
Small bands of irregular fighters have resisted the ability of the US to pacify the Afghan countryside. |