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EXSC 223: Exam 1
directly causes mechanical motion
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muscular system
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Responds to environmental changes by transmitting electrical impulses
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nervous system
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Provides support and levers for muscles to work on
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skeletal system
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protects underlying organs from mechanical damage and synthesizes vitamin D
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integumentary system
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controls the body with chemical molecules called hormones
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endocrine system
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delivers oxygen and nutrients to the tissues
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cardiovascular system
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produces antibodies that neutralize foreign substances
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immune system
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removes and filters excess fluid from tissues
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lymphatic system
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type of feedback: blood glucose levels
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negative feedback
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type of feedback: blood pressure
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negative feedback
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type of feedback: blood clotting
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positive feedback
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type of feedback: delivering a baby
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positive feedback
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parts of endocrine system
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adrenal glands, pancreas, pituitary
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parts of urinary systems
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kidneys, bladder, ureters
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what cavity is the heart in?
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thoracic cavity
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T or F: Regardless of the variable being regulated, all homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components.
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TRUE
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The study of the heart may incorporate many aspects of anatomy but as a whole you would say it is __________ anatomy.
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gross
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An increased rate of breathing as a result of an increased buildup of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream would be best described as an example of ________.
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excretion of metabolic waste
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Average body temperature is ________ degrees centigrade.
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37
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If you consider your home air conditioner in terms of homeostasis, then the wall thermostat would be the ________.
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control center
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What broad term covers all chemical reactions that occur within the body cells?
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metabolism
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What does gross anatomy study?
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Larger structures of the body that can be seen with the naked eye
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The ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them is called
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responsiveness or irritability
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Why is a normal body temperature important?
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If body temperature is too low, chemical reactions slow and eventually stop. If body temperature is too high, chemical reactions speed up and body proteins lose their normal shape, resulting in loss of function.
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What can happen when the usual negative feedback mechanisms are overwhelmed and 126) destructive positive feedback mechanisms take over?
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Homeostatic imbalances increase our risk for illness and produce the changes we associate with aging.
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T or F: Lipids are a poor source of stored energy.
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FALSE
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The single most abundant protein in the body is ________.
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collagen
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Carbohydrates are stored in the liver and muscles in the form of ________.
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glycogen
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what describes coenzymes?
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they are organic molecules derived from vitamins
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82) Select which reactions will usually be irreversible regarding chemical equilibrium in living 82) systems.
A) ADP + Pi to make ATP B) glucose to CO2 and H2O
C) glucose molecules joined to make glycogen D) H2O + CO2 to make H2CO3
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B) glucose to CO2 and H2O
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Choose the answer that best describes fibrous proteins. 84) A) rarely exhibit secondary structure B) are usually called enzymes
C) are cellular catalysts D) are very stable and insoluble in water
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D) are very stable and insoluble in water
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What is the ratio of fatty acids to glycerol in neutral fats?
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3:01
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In a DNA molecule, the phosphate serves ________.
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to hold the molecular backbone together
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In a DNA molecule, guanine would connect to ________.
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cytosine
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Hydrogen bonds are more like a type of weak ________ than true bonds.
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attraction
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What does the polar end of a phospholipid contain?
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a phosphorous containing group
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What happens when globular proteins are denatured?
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active sites are destroyed
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Explain the difference between potential and kinetic energy.
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Potential energy is inactive stored energy that has potential to do work. Kinetic energy is energy in action.
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How can phospholipids form a film when mixed in water?
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Phospholipids have both polar and nonpolar ends. The polar end interacts with water, leaving the nonpolar end oriented in the opposite direction.
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High heat capacity, high heat of vaporization, polarity and solvent properties, reactivity, and cushioning.
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High heat capacity, high heat of vaporization, polarity and solvent properties, reactivity, and cushioning.
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Explain why chemical reactions in the body are often irreversible.
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When products of a reaction are continuously taken away from the sight of the reaction it is unable to present for the reverse reaction. Furthermore, reaction involving energy release will not go backwards unless energy is put into them.
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Describe the factors that affect chemical reaction rates.
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Temperature increases kinetic energy and therefore the force of molecular collisions. Particle size: smaller particles move faster at the same temperature and therefore collide more frequently; also, smaller particles have more surface area given the same concentration of reactants. Concentration: the higher the concentration, the greater the chance of particles colliding. Catalysts increase the rate of the reaction at a given temperature. Enzymes are biological catalysts.
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2. They have specific binding sites for specific substrates.
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2. They have specific binding sites for specific substrates.
3. They lower the activation barrier for a specific reaction.
4. The names end in "ase."
5. They can be denatured.
6. They can be used again and again.
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Are all chemical reactions reversible? If not, why aren't they all reversible?
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All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible, but only if the products are not consumed.
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Mrs. Mulligan goes to her dentist and, after having a couple of cavities filled, her dentist strongly suggests that she reduce her intake of sodas and increase her intake of calcium phosphates in the foods she eats. Why?
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Sodas are strong acids that can reduce bone and tooth salts. Calcium phosphate makes teeth hard and therefore more resistant to tooth decay
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Although his cholesterol levels were not high, Mr. Martinez read that cholesterol was bad for his health, so he eliminated all foods and food products containing this molecule. He later found that his cholesterol level dropped only 20%. Why did it not drop more?
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Cholesterol is produced by the liver, in addition to being ingested in foods.
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How can DNA be used to "fingerprint" a suspect in a crime?
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The DNA of a person is unique to that individual. By obtaining the DNA from nucleated cells from the crime scene (e.g., tissue, sperm), enzymes may be used to break up the DNA into fragments. Because nearly everyone's DNA is different, it also breaks up into fragments differently. When the fragments are separated, they form patterns even more unique than fingerprint patterns. A match of suspect and crime scene DNA is strong evidence.
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Why is it possible for us to drink a solution that contains a mixture of equal concentration of a strong acid and a strong base, either of which, separately, would be very caustic?
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When an acid and base of equal strength are mixed, they undergo a displacement reaction to form a water and a salt.
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A 65-year-old patient came to the emergency room with complaints of severe heartburn unrelieved by taking a "large handful" of antacids. Would you expect the pH to be high or low? Explain why.
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You would expect a high pH. Taking antacids will neutralize the acidic stomach. Taking a "handful" of antacids can cause an alkaloid state. Certain drugs, such as corticosteroids and antacids that contain baking soda, will lead to metabolic alkalosis.
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A 23-year-old male was riding his road bike in 100-degree heat, when he suddenly became nauseated and weak. He called 911 from his cell phone. When the ambulance came, the paramedics started intravenous therapy for severe dehydration. Explain the critical role of water to maintain homeostasis.
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Water is the most abundant and important inorganic compound in living material. It makes up 60% to 80% of the volume of most living cells. The properties of water are: high heat capacity, high heat of vaporization, polar solvent properties, reactivity, and cushioning. In this case the bicyclist lost a large amount of water through perspiration in an effort to cool his body. This caused a disruption in homeostasis.
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Brenda is a 26-year-old female who is being discharged from the hospital after a vaginal delivery of an 8-pound healthy infant. Brenda is instructed by the nurse to eat a diet high in fiber and to drink 8 glasses of water per day to prevent constipation. Explain the role of fiber and water to promote defecation.
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Cellulose is a polysaccharide found in all plant products that adds bulk to the diet to promote feces through the colon. Water acts as a lubricating liquid within the colon, which eases feces through the bowel.
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A 64-year-old man is admitted to the hospital for nonhealing pressure ulcers to his heels. He has been bedridden for 10 years because of a degenerative muscle disease. Explain why protein would be an important part of his diet to promote wound healing.
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Protein composes 10% to 30% of cell mass and is the basic structural material of the body. Proteins regulate body processes. Skin, hair, and eyes are made of protein, as are the enzymes needed for digestion and absorption. Protein is essential for growth, maintenance, and repair of tissue.
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Produces ATP aerobically.
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mitochondria
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Site of enzymatic breakdown of phagocytized material.
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lysosome
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Packages proteins for insertion in the cell membrane or for exocytosis.
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Golgi Apparatus
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Site of synthesis of lipid and steroid molecules.
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Forms the mitotic spindle.
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centrioles
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Replicate for cell division.
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centrioles
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Source of cell autolysis.
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lysosome
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Forms part of the protein synthesis site in the cytoplasm.
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ribosomal RNA
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Act as "interpreter" molecules that recognize specific amino acids and nucleotide base sequences.
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transfer RNA
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Attaches the correct amino acid to its transfer RNA.
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synthetase enzymes
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Provides the energy needed for synthesis reactions.
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ATP
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Found in the cytoplasm, this structure specifies the exact sequence of amino acids of the protein to be made.
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messenger RNA
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May be attached to the ER or scattered in the cytoplasm.
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Ribosomal RNA
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Chromosomes decoil to form chromatin.
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telophase
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Chromosomal centromeres split and chromosomes migrate to opposite ends of the cell.
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anaphase
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Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate.
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late prophase
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Chromosomes align on the spindle equator.
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metaphase
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Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell.
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early prophase
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Plays a role in the synthesis of steroid based hormones and proteins
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endoplasmic reticulum
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The actual site of protein synthesis.
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ribosomes
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Hollow cytoskeletal elements that act as organizers for the cytoskeleton.
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microtubules
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Dense spherical bodies in the nucleus that are the synthesis site for ribosomal RNA.
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nuceoli
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Houses DNA and RNA.
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nucleus
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Help prevent molecules from passing through the extracellular space between adjacent cells.
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tight junctions
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Type of anchoring junction.
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desmosomes
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Communicating junction.
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gap junctions
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Present in electrically excitable tissues.
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gap junctions
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Abundant in tissues subjected to great mechanical stress.
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desmosomes
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T or F: Each daughter cell resulting from mitotic cell division has exactly as many chromosomes as the parent cell.
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TRUE
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T or F: Apoptosis is programmed cell suicide, but cancer cells fail to undergo apoptosis.
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TRUE
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T or F: DNA contains "dark matter" that codes for specific structural proteins.
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FALSE
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T or F: Final preparation for cell division is made during the cell life cycle subphase called G2.
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TRUE
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T or F: Chromatin consists of DNA and RNA.
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FALSE
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T or F: In osmosis, movement of water occurs toward the solution with the lower solute concentration.
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FALSE
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T or F: The genetic information is coded in DNA by the regular alternation of sugar and phosphate molecules.
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FALSE
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T or F: A process by which large particles may be taken into the cell for food, protection of the body, or for disposing of old or dead cells is called phagocytosis.
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TRUE
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T or F: The orderly sequence of the phases of mitosis is prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
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TRUE
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T or F: Diffusion is always from areas of greater to areas of lesser concentration.
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TRUE
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T or F: Facilitated diffusion always requires a carrier protein.
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FALSE
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T or F: DNA transcription is another word for DNA replication.
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FALSE
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T or F: The glycocalyx is often referred to as the "cell coat," which is somewhat fuzzy and sticky with numerous cholesterol chains sticking out from the surface of the cell membrane.
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FALSE
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T or F: In their resting state, all body cells exhibit a resting membrane potential ranging from -50 to about +50 millivolts
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FALSE
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T or F: Microfilaments are thin strands of the contractile protein to myosin.
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FALSE
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T or F: Interstitial fluid represents one type of extracellular material.
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TRUE
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T or F: The cell (plasma) membrane normally contains substantial amounts of cholesterol.
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TRUE
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T or F: Aquaporins are believed to be present in red blood cells and kidney tubules, but very few other cells in the body.
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FALSE
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T or F: Most organelles are bounded by a membrane that is quite different in structure from the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.
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FALSE
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T or F: Only one cell type in the human body has a flagellum.
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TRUE
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T or F: Microtubules are hollow tubes made of subunits of the protein tubulin.
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TRUE
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T or F: Telomeres are the regions of chromosomes that code for the protein ubiquitin.
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FALSE
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T or F: Nitric oxide may act as a biological messenger.
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TRUE
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Which of the following is true regarding the generation of a membrane potential?
A) The maintenance of the potential is based exclusively on diffusion processes.
B) Both potassium and sodium ions can "leak" through the cell membrane due to diffusion.
C) In the polarized state, sodium and potassium ion concentrations are in static equilibrium.
D) When the sodium-potassium pump is activated, potassium is pumped into the cell twice as
fast as the sodium is pumped out, thus causing the membrane potential.
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B
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Which statement best describes transcytosis?
A) storing the contents of the endosome
B) recycling the contents of the endosome back to the surface of the cell
C) transporting an endosome from one side of a cell to the other and releasing the contents by
exocytosis
D) combining an endosome with a lysosome and degrading or releasing the contents
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C
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In certain kinds of muscle cells, calcium ions are stored in ________.
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smooth ER
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The RNA responsible for bringing the amino acids to the "factory" site for protein formation is
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tRNA
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A red blood cell placed in pure water would
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swell and burst
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Which of the following describes the plasma membrane?
A) the phospholipid bilayer surrounding the cell
B) a membrane composed of tiny shelves or cristae
C) a single-layered membrane that surrounds the nucleus of the cell D) a double layer of protein enclosing the plasma
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A
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Which structures are fingerlike projections that greatly increase the absorbing surface of cells?
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microvilli
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T or F: The greater the concentration of gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion.
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TRUE
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Once solid material is phagocytized and taken into a vacuole, which of the following statements best describes what happens?
A) A ribosome enters the vacuole and uses the amino acids in the "invader" to form new protein. B) Nitrogen enters the vacuole and "burns" the enclosed solid material.
C) A lysosome combines with the vacuole and digests the enclosed solid material.
D) The vacuole remains separated from the cytoplasm and the solid material persists unchanged.
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C
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The electron microscope has revealed that one of the components within the cell consists of microtubules arranged to form a hollow tube. This structure is a ________.
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centriole
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Which statement is the most correct regarding transcription/translation?
A) The nucleotide sequence in a tRNA anticodon is an exact copy of the DNA triplet that coded
for it.
B) The nucleotide sequence in a mRNA codon is an exact copy of the DNA triplet that coded for
it except that uracil is substituted for thymine.
C) The nucleotide sequence in a tRNA anticodon is an exact copy of the DNA triplet that coded
for it except that uracil is substituted for thymine.
D) The nucleotide sequence in a mRNA codon is an exact copy of the DNA triplet that coded for
it.
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C
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Which of the following is a principle of the fluid mosaic model of cell membrane structure?
A) Phospholipids consist of a polar head and a nonpolar tail made of three fatty acid chains.
B) The lipid bilayer is a solid at body temperature, thus protecting the cell.
C) Phospholipids form a bilayer that is largely impermeable to water-soluble molecules.
D) All proteins associated with the cell membrane are contained in a fluid layer on the outside of
the cell.
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C
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Extracellular matrix is ________.
A) not present in connective tissue
B) the most abundant extracellular material
C) a type of impermeable cell junction found in epithelia D) composed of strands of actin protein
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B
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Some hormones enter cells via ________.
A) endocytosis
C) exocytosis
B) receptor-mediated endocytosis
D) pinocytosis
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B
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If a tRNA had an AGC anticodon, it could attach to a(n) ________ mRNA codon.
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UCG
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The RNA that has an anticodon and attaches to a specific amino acid is ________ RNA.
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transfer
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Water may move through membrane pores constructed by transmembrane proteins called 105) ________.
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aquaporins
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________ is the division of the cytoplasmic mass into two parts.
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cytokinesis
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The metabolic or growth phase of a cell life cycle is called ________.
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interphase
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In order for the DNA molecule to get "short and fat" to become a chromosome, it must first wrap around small molecules called ________.
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histones
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________ are hollow tubes made of spherical protein subunits called tubulins.
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microtubules
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Aerobic cellular respiration occurs in the ________.
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mitochondria
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Two very important second messengers used in the G protein linked receptor mechanism are cyclic AMP and ________.
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ionic calcium
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The most common extracellular ion is ________.
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sodium
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The process of discharging particles from inside a cell to the outside is called ________.
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exocytosis
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A red blood cell would swell if its surrounding solution were ________.
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hypotonic
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Describe two important functions of the Golgi apparatus.
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to modify, sort, and package proteins
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Why can we say that a cell without a nucleus will ultimately die?
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Without a nucleus, a cell cannot make proteins, nor can it replace any enzymes or other cell structures (which are continuously recycled). Additionally, such a cell could not replicate.
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What forces maintain a steady state "resting" membrane potential?
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Both diffusion and active transport mechanisms operate within the cell membrane to maintain a resting membrane potential.
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Briefly describe the glycocalyx and its functions.
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The glycocalyx is the sticky, carbohydrate-rich area on the cell surface. It helps bind cells together and provides a highly specific biological marker by which cells can recognize each other.
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Explain the term genetic code. What does it code for? What are the letters of the code?
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The genetic code is the information encoded in the nucleotide base sequence of DNA. A sequence of three bases, called a triplet, specifies amino acid in a protein. The letters of the code are the four nucleotide bases of DNA designated as A, T, C, and G.
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Why are free radicals so dangerous to cells, and how are they dealt with by the body?
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Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals that cause havoc in any cellular environment by reacting with things they should not. Cells with peroxisomes have enzymes specific to reducing free radicals into less reactive chemicals.
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In all living cells hydrostatic and osmotic pressures exist. Define these pressures and explain how they are used in the concept of tonicity of the cell.
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Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure of water exerted on the cell membrane. Osmotic pressure is created by different concentrations of molecules in a solution separated by the cell membrane. Because these pressures are exerted on the membrane they can be used by the cell to change the shape of the cell, regulate substances entering and exiting the cell, and bring about the polarity of the cell.
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What is the common route of entry for flu viruses into a cell?
|
Flu viruses and diphtheria toxins use receptor-mediated endocytosis. The virus can attach to the receptors or to the substances the receptors accept to "hitch a ride" into the cell.
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Other than the nucleus, which organelle has its own DNA?
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mitochondria
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How are the products of free ribosomes different from membrane bound ribosomes?
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Free ribosomes make soluble proteins that function in the cytosol. Membrane-bound ribosomes produce proteins that are to be used on the cell membrane or exported from the cell.
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How are peroxisomes different from lysosomes?
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Some of the peroxisomes are oxidases that use oxygen to detoxify harmful substances. They are very good at neutralizing free radicals. Peroxisomes divide by simply budding. Lysosomes have powerful hydrolytic enzymes that will pretty much destroy anything they come in contact with. They are manufactured by the Golgi apparatus.
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Briefly name the subphases of interphase and tell what they do.
|
) G1 - growth phase. The cell is metabolically active and the centriole begins to divide at the end of this phase. S - DNA replicates itself. New histones are made and assembled into chromatin. G2 - Enzymes and proteins are synthesized and centriole replication is completed. This is the final phase of interphase.
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List the steps in the process of transcription.
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initiation, elongation, and transcription
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How is the resting potential formed? How is it maintained?
|
It is formed by diffusion of ions resulting in ionic imbalances that polarize the membrane. It is maintained by active transport processes.
|
List possible causes of aging.
|
1. chemical insults and free radical formation (wear and tear theory)
2. diminished energy production by free radical-damaged mitochondria
3. progressive disorders in the immune system
4. genetic programming
|
What factors contribute to the fragility of the lysosome and subsequent cell autolysis?
|
cell injury, cell oxygen deprivation, presence of excessive amounts of vitamin A in the cell
|
Why can we say that cells are protein factories?
|
Most of the metabolic machinery of the cell is involved in protein synthesis since structural proteins constitute most of the cell dry material and functional proteins direct all cellular activities.
|
What are cell exons and introns?
|
Exons are amino acid-specifying informational sequences in genes. Introns are noncoding gene segments that provide a reservoir of ready-to-use DNA segments for genome evolution and a source of a large variety of RNA molecules.
|
The patient was admitted to the hospital for severe dehydration. Explain what changes occur in extracellular and intracellular fluid compartments during dehydration.
|
Fluid volume deficit occurs when the body loses both water and electrolytes from the extracellular fluid compartment. Fluid is initially lost from the intravascular compartment. Then fluid is drawn from the interstitial compartment into the intravascular compartment, depleting the interstitial compartment. To compensate for the decreased volume, the body then draws intracellular fluid out of the cells. This could lead to collapse and death.
|
Your patient has the flu and reports 56 loose stools a day. He has experienced an isotonic fluid volume loss. Explain what an isotonic fluid loss means.
|
An isotonic fluid volume loss occurs when water and electrolytes are lost in equal proportion
|