115 Cards in this Set
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Life
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Some features of living things include: order, the need for energy, growth and development, regulation of one's internal environment, the ability to reproduce, the ability to respond to one's external environment, and evolutionary adaptation (no single correct definition)
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Evolution
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Changes in the genetic structure of a population
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Adaptations
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Traits that help an organism survive in its current environment
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Natural Selection
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A process by which a population becomes better adapted to its' environment over time - "differential reproduction" - the best adapted individuals are more likely to reproduce then less well adapted individuals
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Polar
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A molecule with different electrical properties on opposite ends (e.g. water)
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Covalent Bonds
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Bonds that involve the sharing of electrons
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Electronegativity
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The tendency of an atom to attract electrons
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Hydrogen Bond
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A weak bond between two molecules resulting from attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other (e.g. between water molecules)
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Cohesion
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The intermolecular force that holds together the molecules in a solid or liquid (e.g. liquid water molecules being stuck together via hydrogen bonding)
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Surface Tension
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Resistance to disruption at the surface (e.g. water)
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Specific Heat
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The heat required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a given substance by a given amount (note: water has a high specific heat, meaning it takes a relatively large amount of energy to raise its temperature, resulting in water being able to absorb and store heat energy more effic…
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Heat of Vaporization
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Heat absorbed by a unit mass of a material at its boiling point in order to convert the material into a gas at the same temperature (note: water has a relatively high heat of vaporization, meaning that it's relatively resistant to phase changes because it takes a relatively large amount o…
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Solvent
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Capable of dissolving other substances (note: because water is polar, it's an excellent solvent, and can dissolve any other polar molecule (i.e. with a charge))
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Hydrophilic
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Compounds that dissolve readily in water
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Hydrophobic
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Compounds that do not interact with water
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Amphipathic
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Molecules that have the unique ability to be both hydrophobic and hydrophilic (i.e. has one end with some charge character, and the other end lacking charge) (e.g. phospholipid macromolecules)
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Inorganic Compounds
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Compounds that do not contain carbon (with the exception of CO2 and several other C-containing molecules which are classified as inorganic molecules)
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Organic Compounds
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Compounds that contain carbon and are prevalent in living things
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Electron
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A negatively charged subatomic particle
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Valence
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The outermost orbital of an atom
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Macromolecule
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A large organic compound (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids)
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Anabolism
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The general process of joining monomers to form a polymer
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Catabolism
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The general process of breaking down a polymer to form monomers
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Condensation Synthesis/Dehydration Synthesis
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The removal of a water molecule to join monomers
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Hydrolysis
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A type of catabolism whereby a polymer is broken down by the addition of water
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Carbohydrates
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Biomolecules with the basic structural formula C(H2O)n
i. functions: energy storage (e.g. starch) and as structural molecules (e.g. cellulose is an important component of plant cell walls), information storage in nucleic acids
ii. monomeric unit: simple sugars (monosaccharides)
iii. f…
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Nucleic Acids
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Organic compounds that make up RNA and DNA (monomeric units of RNA and DNA)
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Monosaccharides
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Simple sugars (i.e. glucose (also known as dextrose), fructose, ribose, galactose, and ribulose)
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Disaccharide
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A sugar formed by a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides
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Polysaccharide
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Polymers consisting of multiple monomers of simple sugars (e.g. the exoskeletons of arthropods are made of the polysaccharide chitin)
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Glycogen
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The form of surplus sugar that animals store in their livers
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Lipids
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i. hydrophobic
ii. not polymers, but monomers of fatty acids
iii. functions: energy storage (e.g. fats), main structural components of cell membranes (e.g. phospholipids and cholesterol), and hormones and other cell signaling molecules (e.g. estrogen and testosterone)
iv. include triac…
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Triaglycerols
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Lipids that are dietary fats (e.g. fats and oils)
i. fats can be:
a. saturated - do not have double bonds in their hydrocarbon chains because their carbon is bound to two other carbons and two hydrogens, and have straight chains that organize into more tightly packed arrangements (note…
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Phospholipids
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i. lipids - chains of fatty acid monomers
ii. have only two fatty acids molecules, and a glycerol joined to a phosphate group (can dissolve in water due to polarity)
iii. forms the basis for the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes
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Steroids
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Lipids
i. four-fused ring structure
ii. include cholesterol, and certain hormones (e.g., estrogen and testosterone) produced from cholesterol
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Proteins
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i. polymers
ii. functions: structural and mechanical (e.g, actin and myosin in muscle cells), enzymes (e.g., amylase - a digestive enzyme), synthesize DNA
iii. monomer: amino acid
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Protein Structure - Primary
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The sequence of amino acids in a protein (i.e. straight chain)
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Protein Structure - Secondary
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Regions a protein that are coiled or folded (α helices or β pleated sheets)
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Protein Structure - Tertiary
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The overall shape of a protein due to interactions between the side chains (R groups) of the amino acids
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Protein Structure - Quaternary
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Proteins composed of multiple subunits (multiple polypeptide molecules, each called a monomer)
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Amino Acid
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The basic monomer of proteins
i. functions: makes proteins and genetic information
ii. found in DNA and RNA
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Polypeptides
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A polymer (chain) of amino acid monomers
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Nucleic Acids
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Polymers of nucleotides, which are simple structures that consist of a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base
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Nitrogenous Bases
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Ringed structures consisting of nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen
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Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
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i. works with RNA to affect the synthesis of proteins
ii. sugar - deoxyribose
iii. nitrogenous bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine (note: C will bond to G, and A will bond to T)
iv. structure - paired strands, with the two sides held together by hydrogen bonds between the n…
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Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
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i. works with DNA to affect the synthesis of proteins
ii. sugar - ribose
iii. nitrogenous bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil
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How old is the universe?
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13.7 billion years old
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Oxidation
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The removal of electrons
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Reduction
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The gaining of electrons
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Autotroph
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An organism that uses inorganic sulfur and iron compounds to gain energy, rather than consuming organic molecules
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Heterotroph
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An organism that consumes organic molecules to gain energy, rather than using inorganic sulfur and iron compounds
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Plate Tectonics
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The movement of large plates in Earth's crust with respect to each other
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Continental Drift
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The phenomenon that Earth's continents are constantly rearranging as a result of plate tectonics
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Pangaea
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The supercontinent that existed on Earth about 250 million yeas ago
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Fossils
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Preserved remnants of organisms (e.g., bones and teeth) or whole organisms embedded in amber, acid bogs and tar pits, or anywhere bacteria can't decompose a dead body
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Geological Time Scale
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A classification of different periods in Earth's history
i. Precambrian
ii. Paleozoic
iii. Mesozoic
iv. Cenozoic (note: we're currently in the Quaternary period of the Cenzoic era)
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Sedimentary Rock
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Rock formed by layers of minerals that settle out of water
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Relative Dating
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The dating of fossils in relative layers of sedimentary rock (i.e. deeper layers are older and vice versa)
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Isotopes
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Atoms with the same number of protons, but varying numbers of neutrons
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Radiometric Dating
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Dating based on the relative amounts of an element they decays at a known rate and its radioactive isotope (absolute dating)
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Half-Life
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The amount of time it takes for one-half of the parental atom population to decay into daughter atoms
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Radiocarbon Dating/Carbon-14 Dating
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Radiometric dating using carbon-14
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Dendochronology
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Dating based on the annual growth rings in trees, seeing as ring patterns often reveal something about past climate conditions (absolute dating)
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Prokaryote
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i. no membrane-bound nuclei
ii. less sub-cellular specialization than eukaryotes
iii. smaller than eukaryotic cells
iv. shape - coccus, bacillus, or sprillum
v. reproduce by binary fission
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Eukaryote
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i. membrane-bound nuclei
ii. more sub-cellular specialization than prokaryotes
iii. bigger than prokaryotic cells
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Coccus
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Spherical prokaryotes
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Bacillus
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Rod-shaped prokaryotes
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Spirillum
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Helical prokaryotes
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Archaea
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A domain of prokaryotic organisms
i. do not contain peptidoglycan in their cell walls
ii. some of their genes possess introns
iii. some live in harsh conditions and are mostly anaerobic (extremophiles)
iv. have unique lipids in their cell membrane
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Bacteria
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A domain of prokaryotic organisms
i. contain peptidoglycan in their cell walls
ii. do not have introns in their genes
iii. some are photosynthetic
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Eukarya
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A domain containing organisms that have a nucleus
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Extremophiles
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Archaea or any other organisms that live in extreme environments (e.g., hot springs, salt ponds, Arctic ice, deep oil wells, acidic ponds that form near mines, and hydrothermal vents)
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Binary Fission
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Cell division in which a prokaryotic chromosome replicates and the mother cell pinches in half to form two new daughter cells (asexual reproduction)
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Nucleoid
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An irregularly-shaped region within the cell of prokaryotes which has nuclear material without a nuclear membrane and where the genetic material is localized (note: the prokaryotic chromosome is typically a double-stranded DNA molecule that is arranged in a single large ring)
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Plasmids
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Smaller rings of extrachromosomal DNA often found in prokaryotes
i. may contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, metabolism of unusual nutrients, plasmids that confer virulence, and other special functions
ii. replicate independently of the main chromosome, and many can be…
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Transformation
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A method of moving DNA between bacteria when prokaryotes acquire genes from their surrounding environment
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Pathogenic
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Harmful (note: nonpathogenic bacteria can become pathogenic through transformation)
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Conjugation
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A method of moving DNA between bacteria requiring that two living prokaryotic cells physically join with one another
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Pilus
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The appendage a prokaryote with the F factor produces in order to undergo conjugation
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Fertility Factor Plasmid (F Factor)
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A plasmid in prokaryotes need to produce pili (note: heritable - if an F+ cell divides, both of the resulting cells will be F+, and after an F+ cell conjugates with a "female" cell that does not contain the F factor, the "female" cell obtains the F factor plasmid and becomes F+ ("male"))
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Transduction
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A method of moving DNA between bacteria when a phage inserts its DNA somewhat benignly into the bacterial host chromosome where it can lay dormant for many generations before removing itself from the chromosome (usually carrying pieces of the chromosome with it), and replicating to form n…
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Peptidoglycan
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A polymer consisting of sugar and polypeptides, contained in the cell walls of Bacteria
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Gram's Stain
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A technique used to analyze the amount of peptidoglycan in the cell walls of the unknown organisms
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Gram-Positive Bacteria
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Bacteria containing a lot of peptidoglycan in their cell walls
i. less complex cell walls
ii. Stain purple with Gram's stain
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Gram-Negative Bacteria
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Bacteria containing less peptidoglycan in their cell walls (e.g. Yersinia pestis bacteria that causes the plague in humans)
i. more complex cell walls overall
ii. Stain pink with Gram's stain
iii. have an additional outer membrane with attached lipopolysaccharides (note: some of these …
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Lippopolysaccharide
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A complex molecule containing both lipid and polysaccharide parts (note: gram-negative bacteria have an additional outer membrane with attached lipopolysaccharides)
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Capsule
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Sticky substances (exotoxins) made and secreted by a bacterium, helping them to adhere to surfaces or to each other (i.e. for conjugation), and providing an additional layer of protection to the encapsulated organism
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Flagellum
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A long appendage specialized for locomotion (note: bacterial flagella can rotate either clockwise or counterclockwise - when rotating clockwise, the flagella fly apart, causing the bacteria to tumble randomly, and when rotating counterclockwise, the flagella are drawn together into a bund…
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Taxis
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An oriented movement towards or away from a stimulus
i. can be positive or negative
ii. can result from chemicals (chemotaxis), light (phototaxis), gravity (geotaxis), etc.
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Photoautotroph
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An organism that obtains its energy from light (sun), and its carbon from carbon dioxide (inorganic)
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Photoheterotroph
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An organism that obtains its energy from light (sun), and its carbon from organic molucules
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Chemoautotroph
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An organism that obtains its energy from high energy molecules, and its carbon from carbon dioxide (inorganic)
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Chemoheterotroph
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An organism that obtains its energy from high energy molecules, and its carbon from organic molucules
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Bioremediation
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Using various species of bacteria (that metabolize synthetically produced carbon compounds to produce nontoxic by-products) for the removal of toxins from the environment
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Endospores
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Thickly coated, resistant cells formed by bacteria during harsh conditions, usually triggered by a decline in key nutrients in the environment surrounding the bacteria (note: sporulation is the formation of endospores)
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Symbiosis
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The state of any two species having an extended and intimate association (note: involves a larger organism - the host, and a smaller organism - the microsymbiont)
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Mutualism
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A symbiotic relationship between two organisms in which both benefit (+,+)
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Parasitism
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A symbiotic relationship whereby one member of the symbiosis derives benefit at the expense of the other (+,-)
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Commensalism
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A symbiotic relationship between two organisms in which one benefits, and the other neither benefits nor is harmed, or neither are benefitted nor harmed ((+,0) or (0,0))
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Opportunistic Infection
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An infection caused when a normally commensalistic bacteria becomes pathogenic in response to a changed environment (usually a weakened immune system)
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Exotoxins
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Proteins secreted by prokaryotes causing disease in their host
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Endotoxins
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Surface protein components of the outer cell membrane in some gram-negative bacteria that cause disease in their host
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Osmosis
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The net movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane, from lower solute concentrations to higher solute concentrations
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Microbiome
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The microbes, their genetic elements (genomes), and environmental interactions in a defined environment (e.g. in/on humans)
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Nitrogen Fixation
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The conversion by bacteria of atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonia (NH3), a biologically usable state
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Saprobes
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Organisms that live on dead and decaying matter, after a plant dies, obtain nitrogen from the nitrogenous compounds previously made a by it, and convert that fixed nitrogen back into atmospheric nitrogen
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Nitrogen Cycle
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The cycle of nitrogen (note: do not need to know details for Exam 1)
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Legumes
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i. almost all are capable of housing nitrogen-fixing bacteria
ii. plant-prokaryote mutualism - the plant gets fixed nitrogen from the bacteria, while the bacteria get carbon from the plant
iii. secrete molecules that act as chemical signals to a select species of bacteria (i.e. rhizobia…
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Rhizobia
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Several species of bacteria that form a mutualistic symbiosis with legumes, responding to the plant's chemical signals by migrating towards the plant's root, and forming a nodule in which to fix nitrogen
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Nodule
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A structure on the roots of legumes produced by nitrogen-fixing bacteria (rhizobium) in which they can optimally fix nitrogen
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Cyanobacteria
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Often referred to as blue-green algae (note: Anabaena, a member of this genus colonizes on the leaves of an aquatic fern that grows in rice paddies, forming a symbiosis that supplies nitrogen to the pond, where it subsequently is taken up and used by rice plants)
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Anaerobic
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Any organism, environment, or cellular process that lacks or does not require oxygen, and can even be poisoned by oxygen
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Obligate Aerobes
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Organisms that require oxygen
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Obligate Anaerobes
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Organisms that have no need for oxygen and may even be poisoned by oxygen
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Facultative Anaerobes
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Organisms that can use oxygen if it's present, but don't need it
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BIOL 110: Exam 1