Ecology and Evolution- Exam 2 Study Guide
173 Cards in this Set
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Viscosity
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the thickness of a fluid that causes objects to encounter resistance as they move through it
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Saturation
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an upper limit of solubility in water
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Solutes
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dissolve substances in water
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Semipermeable membranes
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membranes that allow only particular molecules to pass through; reduces free movement of solutes
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Osmosis
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movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane
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Osmotic potential
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the force with which a solution attracts water by osmosis
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Osmoregulation
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mechanisms organisms use to maintain a proper solute balance
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Boundary layer
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a region of unstirred air or water that surrounds the surface of an object; removed gases from this region are slow to be replaced; this further limits carbon availability
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Countercurrent circulation
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an adaptation where blood and water flow in opposite directions so that the concentration of O2 in water is always greater than the concentration of blood
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Q10 value
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a ratio of a physiological process rate at one temperature to the rate of that process when the temperature is 10deg Celsius cooler
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Thermal pollution
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changing the temperature of an environment via human discharges
ex: effluent from nuclear power plants
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Glycerol and glycoproteins
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chemicals present in some animals that prevent freezing by reducing strength of hydrogen bonds or via supercooling
ex: coating of ice seeds
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Thermal optima
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the range of temperature in which an organism best performs
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Isozymes
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different forms of an enzyme that catalyze a reaction
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Cohesion
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the mutual attraction of water molecules; allows water to move up through empty remains of xylem cells
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Root Pressure
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when osmotic potential in the roots of a plant draws in the water from the soil and forces it into xylem
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Transpiration
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the process by which leaves can generate water potential as water evaporates from the surfaces of leaf cells
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Cohesion-tension theory
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the mechanism of water movement from roots to leaves due to water cohesion and water tension
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Stomata
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Small openings on leaf surfaces that are points of entry for CO2 and exit points for water vapor; bordered by guard cells that open and close each stoma
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Electromagnetic radiation
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energy from the sun; packaged in small, particle-like units called photons
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Photosynthetically active region
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wavelengths of light that are suitable for photosynthesis; includes wavelengths from 400nm(violet) to 700nm (red)
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Chloroplasts
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specialized cell organelles found in eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms
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Photosynthesis
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known as light reactions and the Calvin cycle; takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts; energy in ATP and NADPH is used to convert CO2 into glucose
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C3 Photosynthesis
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Process is catalyzed by RuBP carboxylase-oxidase
CO2 + RuBP-->2G3P
Common, Rubisco, inefficient
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Disadvantages of C3 Photosynthesis
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Rubisco is inefficient; low affinity for CO2 so plants need large amounts; Rubisco also preferentially binds to O2 which is problematic in hot and dry conditions ; Stromata close to prevent O2 from leaving the leaf
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Photorespiration
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reversal of light reactions to oxidate carbohydrates to CO2 and H2O by Rubisco
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C4 Photosynthesis
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a photosynthetic pathway in which CO2 is initially assimilated into a four-carbon compound, oxaloacetic acid(OAA); provides an advantage in hot and dry conditions
CO2 + PEP --> OAA
derived, PEP and OAA, reactions physically seperated
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CAM Photosynthesis
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a pathway in which the initial assimilation of carbon into OAA occurs at night; stromata closes during the say to reduce transpiration rates
derived, PEP and OAA, temporal separation of reactions
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Homeostasis
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an organisms ability to maintain constant internal conditions int eh face of a varying external enviornment
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Negative Feedback
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the action of internal response mechanisms that restors a system to a desired state, or set point, when the system deviates from that state
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Radiation
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the emission of electromagnetic energy by a surface, increases with the fourth power of absolute temperature
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Conduction
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the transfer of the kinetic energy of heat between substances that are in contact with one another; rates depend on surface ares, resistance of substances to heat transfer, and temperature differences between substances
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Convection
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the transfer of heat by movement of liquids and gases; molecules next to a warm surface gain energy and move away
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Evaporation
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the transformation of water from a liquid to a gaseous state with the input of energy; removes heat from a surface
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Thermal inertia
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the resistance to a change in temperature due to a large body volume
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Thermoregulation
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the ability of an organism to control the temperature of its body
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Homeotherms
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organisms that maintain constant temperature; this allows biochemical reactions to work most efficiently
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Poikilotherms
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organisms that so not have constant body temperatures
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Ectotherms
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organisms with body temperatures determined by their external environment; not necessarily poikilotherms
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Endotherms
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organisms that can generate metabolic heat to raise body temperature higher than the external environment
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Blood Shunting
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when specific blood vessels shut off so less of an animal's warm blood flows to cold extremities where heat would be lost; occurs at pre-capillary sphincters
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
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a molecule composed of two strands of nucleotides that are wound together into a double helix; each strand is composed of subunits called nucleotides; each nucleotide has a sugar, phosphate group, and one of the four nitrogenous bases (A,T,G,C)
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Chromosomes
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compact structures consisting of long strands of DNA wound around proteins
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Alleles
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different forms of a particular gene
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Polygenic
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when a single trait is affected by several genes; enables phenotypes to span a range of values in a population
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Pleiotrophy
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when a single gene affects multiple traits
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Epistasis
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when the expression of one gene is controlled by another gene
ex: mouse hair color is determined by a gene that codes for black or brown pigments, a second gene determines whether the hair will have any pigment at all
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Heterozygous
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when an individual has two different alleles of a particular gene
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Homozygous
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when an individual has two identical alleles of a particular gene
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Codominant
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when two alleles both contribute to the phenotype
ex: flower color in snapdragons
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Dominant
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an allele that masks the expression of the other allele
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Recessive
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an allele whose expression is masked by another allele; most harmful alleles are recessive
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Gene Pool
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collection of alleles from all individuals in a population
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Random Assortment
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the process of making haploid gametes in which the combination of alleles that are placed into a given gamete could be any combination of those possessed by the diploid parent
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Mutation
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a random change in the sequence of nucleotides in regions of DNA that controls the expression of a gene
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Recombination
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the reshuffling of genes that can occur as DNA is copied during meiosis and chromosomes exchange genetic material
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Genetic Drift
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a process that occurs when genetic variation is lost due to random variation in mating, mortality, fecundity, and inheritance
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Bottleneck Effect
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a reduction of genetic diversity in a poplutaion cue to large reduction in population size
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Founder Effect
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when a small number of individuals leave a large population to colonize a new area and bring with them only a small amount of genetic variation
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Selection
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the process by which certain phenotypes are favored to survive and reproduce over other phenotypes; relationship between phenotype and fitness
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Stabilizing selection
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when individuals with intermediate phenotypes have higher survival and reproductive success than those with extreme phenotypes
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Directional selection
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when individuals with extreme phenotypes experience higher fitness than the average population phenotype
ex: drought on the Galapagos Island increased the proportion of large seeds; Birds with large beaks were better able to consume large seeds, so large beaks were selected for
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Disruptive selection
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when individuals withe either extreme phenotype experience higher fitness than individuals with an intermediate phenotype
ex: Mexican spade-foot toad can have mouth morphology to be carnivorous, omnivorous, or intermediate consumer
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Microevolution
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the evolution of populations; affected by random processes and selection
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Artificial selection
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selection in which humans decide which individuals will breed; breeding is one with a preconceived goal for the traits in the population
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Industrial melanism
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a phenomenon in which industrial activities cause habitats to become darker due to population; individuals possessing darker phenotypes are favored by selection
ex: during the 19th century, peppered mother were white with black spots
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Macroevolution
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evolution at higher levels or organization including species, genera, families, orders, and phyla
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Speciation
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the evolution of new species
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Phylogenetic trees
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hypothesized pattern of relatedness among different groups such as populations, species, or genera; depict which groups evolved from other groups
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Allopatric Speciation
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the evolution of new species through the process of geographic isolation
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Sympatric speciations
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the evolution of new species without geographic isolations
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Polyploid
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a species that contains three or more sets of chromosomes; can also give rise to sympatric speciation
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Weather
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the variation in temperature and precipitation over periods of hours or days
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Climate
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the typical atmospheric conditions that occur through the year, measured over many years
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Large-scale spatial variation
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may be caused by factors such as climate, land topography, and soil type
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Small-scale spatial variation
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is generated by factors such as plant structure and animal behavior
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Phenotypic trade-off
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a situation in which a given phenotype experiences higher fitness in one environment, whereas other phenotypes experience higher fitness in other environments
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Phentotypic plasticity
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the ability of a single genotype to produce multiple phenotypes; allows organisms to achieve homeostasis if environmental conditions vary
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Acclimation
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an environmentally induced change in an individual's physiology, can also be relatively rapid
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hermaphrodites
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individuals that produce both male and female gametes; individuals are able to fertilize their eggs with their own sperm
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Inbreeding depression
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the decrease in fitness caused by matings between close relatives due to offspring inheriting deleterious alleles from both the eggs and the sperm
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Microhabitats
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locations within a habitat that differ in environmental conditions from the rest of the habitats
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Dormacy
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a condition in which organisms dramatically reduce their metabolic process
4 types: Diapause, Hibernation, Torpor, Aestivation
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Diapause
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involves a partial or complete physiological shutdown in response to unfavorable conditions; common in insects
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Hibernation
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individuals reduce the energetic costs of being active by lowering heart rate and decreasing body temperature; common in mammals
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Torpor
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a brief period of dormancy in which individuals reduce activity and body temperature; common in birds and mammals
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Aestivation
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the shutting down of metabolic processes during the summer in response to hot or dry conditions; examples include snails, desert tortoises, and crocodiles
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Central plane foraging
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foraging behavior in which acquired food is brought to a central plaace
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Risk-sensitive foraging
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foraging behavior that is influenced by the presence of predator
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Handling time
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the amount of time that a predator takes to consume a captured prey
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Life history
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the schedule of an organism's growth, development, reproduction, and survival; represents an allocation of limited time and resources to achieve maximum reproductive success
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Fecundity
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the number of offspring produced by an organism per reproductive episode
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Parity
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the number of reproductive episodes an organism experiences
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Parental investment
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the time and energy given to an offspring by its parents
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Longevity (life expectancy)
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the life span of an organism
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"Sloe" life history
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long time to sexual maturity; long life spans; low numbers of offspring; high parental investment
ex: elephants, oak trees
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"Fast" life history
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short time to sexual maturity; short life span; hight numbers of offspring; little parental investment
ex: fruit flies, weeds
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J. Philip Grime
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proposed that plant life history depends on stress, competition, and the frequency of disturbances
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Principle of Allocation
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the observation that when resources are devoted to one body structure, physiological function, or behavior, they cannot be allotted to another
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Determiate growth
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a growth pattern in which an individual does not grow any more once it initiates reproduction; occurs in many species of birds and mammals
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Indeterminate growth
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a growth pattern in which an individual continues to grow after it initiates reproduction; occurs in many species of plants, invertebrates, fishes, reptiles, and amphibians
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Semelparity
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when organisms reproduce only once during their life; relatively rare in vertebrates, but common in insects or plants
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Iteroparity
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when organisms reproduce multiple times during their life; common among birds, reptiles, mammals, and amphibians
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Annual
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an organism that has a life span of one year
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Perennial
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an organism that has a life span of more than one year
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Photperiod
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the amount of light that occurs each day; provides a cue for many events in the life histories of virtually all organisms
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Secual Reproduction
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a reproduction mechanism in which progeny inherit DNA from two parents
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Gonads
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the primary sexual organs in animals
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Asexual Reproduction
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a reproduction mechanism in which progeny inherit DNA from a single parent
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Vegetative reproduction
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a form of asexual reproduction in which an individual is produced from the nonsexual tissues of a parent
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Clones
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individuals that descend asexually from the same parent and bear that same genotype
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Parthenogenesis
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a form of asexual reproduction in which an embryo is produced without fertilization
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Purging mutations
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sexually reproducing organisms can lose deleterious mutations during meiosis
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Coping with environmental variation
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offspring are likely to encounter different environmental conditions than their parents do
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Red Queen Hypothesis
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sexual selection allows hosts to evolve at a rate that counters the rapid evolution of parasites
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Perfect flower
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flowers that contain both male and female flowers
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Simultaneous hermaphrodites
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individuals that possess male and female reproductive functions at the same time
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Sqeuential hermaphrodites
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individuals that possess male or female reproductive function and then switch to the other
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Monoecious
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plants that have separate male and female flowers on the same individual
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Dioecious
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plants that contain either only male flowers or only female flowers on a single individual
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Enviornmental sex determination
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a process in which sex is determined largely by the environment; this is a type of phenotypic plasticity, where the phenotype is sex
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Temperature-dependent sex determination
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occurs when the sex of an individual is determined by the temperature at which eggs develop
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Frequency dependent selection
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when the rarer phenotype in a population is favored by natural selection
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Local mate competition
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when competition for mates occurs in a very limited area, and only a few males are required to fertilize all of the females
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Mating System
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the number of mates each individual has and the permanence of the relationship with those mates
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Promiscuity
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males mate with multiple females and females mate with multiple males and do not create lasting social bonds; common among animals and outcrossing plants
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Polygamy
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a single individual of one sex forms long-term social bonds with more than one individual of the opposite sex
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Polygyny
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a polygamous mating system in which makes with more then one female
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Polyandry
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a polygamous mating system in which a female mates with more than one male
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Monogamy
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when a social bond between a male and female persists through the period that is required for them to rear offspring
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Extra-pair copulation
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when an individual that has a social bond with a mate also breeds with other individuals
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Mate Guarding
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a behavior in which one partner prevents the other partner from participating in extra-pair copulations
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Sexual selection
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differential survival and reproduction due to sex-specific traits that are related to reproduction; leads to a variety of differences between male and females
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Sexual dimorphism
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the difference in the phenotype between males and females of the same speices
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Primary Sexual Characterists
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traits related to fertilization
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Seconday SexualCharacteristics
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traits related to differences between the sexes in terms of body size, ornaments, color, and courtship
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Fecundity-body size ratio
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body size differences between sexes are common in animals; there has been selection for an increased number of gametes or an increase in parental care in one of the sexes
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Contest
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when males compete for females, selection will favor the evolution of weapons
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Mate Choice
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female choice
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Good gGenes Hypothesis
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the hypothesis that an individual chooses a mate that possesses a superior genotype
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Good Health Hypothesis
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the hypothesis that an individual chooses the healthiest mates
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Runaway Sexual Selection
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when selection for preference of a sexual trait and selection for that trait continue to reinforce each other; continues until males run out of genetic variation
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The Handicap Principle
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the greater the handicap an individual carries, the greater its ability must be to offset that trait
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Social Behavior
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interactions with members of one's own species, including mates, offspring, other relatives, and unrelated individuals
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Predator Dtetection/Evasion
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a group may be able to fend off predatos better than an individual
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Dilution Effect
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the reduced, or diluted, probability or predation to a single animal when it is in a group; probability of death=1/group size
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Vigilance-Group Size Effect
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more individuals watching the predators allows each individual to spend less time watching, and more time feeding
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Food Loaction
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many individuals searching for food may be able to find rare food more easily
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Mate finding
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being social makes it easier to find potential mates because large groups attract the attention of females
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Lek
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the location of an animal aggression to put on display to sttract the opposite sex
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Conpicuousness
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group of animals are more conspicuous to predators
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Disease Transmission
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the rise of parasites increases in groups; high densities can increase the rate at which diseases spread
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Competition
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larger groups are better able to locate food, but that food must be shared among all members
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Aggression
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living in groups can lead to aggression among members
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Territory
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any area defended by one or more individuals against the intrusion of others
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Dominance hierarchy
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a social ranking among individuals in a group typically determined through contests such as fighting or other contests of strength or skill
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Game-Theory Model
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model that attempts to predict the outcome of behavioral decisions when those decisions depend on behavior of other players
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Donor
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the individual who directs a behavior toward another individual as part of a social interaction
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Recipient
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the individual who receives the behavior of a donor in a social interaction
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Cooperation
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when the donor and the recipient of a social behavior both experience increased fitnedd from an interaction
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Selfishness
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when the donor of a social behavior experiences increased fitness and the recipient experience decreased fitness
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Spitefulness
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when a social interaction reduces the fitness ofboth donor and recipient
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Alturigm
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a social interaction that increases recipient fitness and decreases the fitness of the donor
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Indirect fitness
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the fitness that an individual gains by helping relatives pass on copies of their genes
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Inclusive fitness
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the sum of direct and indirect fitness
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Direct Fitness
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the fitness an individual gains by passing on copies of its genes to its offspring
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Die=rect selection
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selection that favors direct fitness
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Indirect selection (kin selection)
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selection favoring indirect fitness
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Eusocialanimals
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1.Several adults living together
2.Overlapping generations of parents and offspring living together in the same group
3. Cooperation in nest building and brood care
4. Reproductive dominance by one or a few individuals, and the presence of sterile individuals
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Caste
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individuals within a social group sharing a specialized form of behavior
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Queen
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the dominant, egg-laying female in eusocial insect societies; typically mate once during their lives
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Haplodiploid
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a sex-determination system in which one sex is haploid and other sex is diploid
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Evolution of Eusociality
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has independently evolved many times; being haplodiploid favors the evolution eusociality; could evolve if the cost of leaving a colony is high due to a low likelihood of surviving, this reduces the cost of foregoing reproduction
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BIOL 301: Resource Partitioning