ENTO 210: EXAM 1
144 Cards in this Set
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The Five Kingdoms:
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Protists, Monerans, Fungi, Plants, Animals
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Five Subphyla of Arthropods
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Trilobitomorpha, Cheliceriformes,
Crustacea, Myriapoda, Hexapoda
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Origin of Arthropods:
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Cambarian explosion (530 million years ago),
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Total number of arthropods:
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1,048,000
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Total number of insects
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925,000
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Why so many species of insects?
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very old group, insects are small, live in a large number of habitats, flight, wing folding, co-evolution with flowering plants
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Class Crustacea:
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52,000 species described, a lot are consumed by humans,
examples: Daphnia, Isopod, barnacles, Copepod, parasitic isopod, lobster, coconut crab
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Class Chelicerata:
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Subclass Merostoma:
-order Eurypterida (Water scorpions)
-order Xiphosura (Horseshoe crabs)
Subclass Arachnida
-Scorpiones
-Uropygi
-order Amblypygi
-order Araneae (spiders)
-order Opiliones
-order Acari (ticks and mites)
-order Solpugidae
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Class Pygnogonida
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Sea spiders
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order Eurypterida
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-water scorpions
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order Xiphosura
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-horse shoe crabs
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order Scorpiones:
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scorpions
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order Uropygi: **
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vinegaroons
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order Amblypygi:
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...
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order Araneae
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Spiders
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order Opiliones
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harvestmen
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order Solpugida
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camel spider
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order Acari
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ticks and mites
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Subphylum Myriapoda
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Class Diplopoda (Millipedes) **
Class Chilopoda (Centipedes) **
Class Pauropoda
Class Symphyla
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Subphylum Hexapoda
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Class Parainecta
Class Entognatha
Class Insecta
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Class Insecta
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-Apterygota (wingless)
-Pterygota (winged)
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Apterygota
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Silverfish
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Pterygota
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-Paleoptera (Dragonflie, Mayflie)
-Neoptera:
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Neoptera:
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-Exopterygota: Incomplete Metamorphosis)
-Endopterygota (complete metamorphosis)
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Exopterygota:
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-wings develop externally, juvenile (nymph) and adult look similar
-major orders: biting/sucking lice, true bugs/cicadas, thrips, matins, cockroaches, termites, stick insects, grasshoppers ,earwigs, webspinners, stoneflies
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Endopterygota:
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-wings develop internally, juvenile (larvae) and adult very different
major orders: butterflies, flies/mosquitoes, lacewings, antlions, dobsonflies, scopionflies, beetles, was/bees/ants, fleas, caddisflies
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Importance of arthropods (roles in ecosystem
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-nutrient recycling of leaf litter, wood, carrion, dung, soil turnover
-plant propagations
-maintenance of plant community structure through phytophagy
-source of food for animals
-maintenance of animal community structure
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Importance of arthropods (other ways):
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food, pollinators of human crops, products, honey, silk, and they are a great subject for biologists
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ways in which arthropods are damaging
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-damage crops directly, transmit plant viruses, destroy products in storage, damage wooded structures
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Gypsy moth
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-brought to the US in 1868, breed hardier silk worm, 450 species of plants are its food, $500 million spent on control
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human health and disease
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-malaria
-yellow fever
-dengue fever
-sleeping sickness
-visceral leishmaniasis
-river blindness
-chagas
-plague
-west nile
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The arthropod body plan
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-exoskeleton
-evolution of molting
-paired segmented appendages
-segmented body
-open circulatory system
compound eyes
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Exoskeleton
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protective armor, support, prevents water loss
limitations:
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segmentation:
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-tagmosis: fusion of segments to create new functional units
-modern spiders, mesothelae
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Respiration:
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causes size limitation because oxygen can not reach very far into body by passive diffusion
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Gas exchange:
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spiders have poor oxygen supply, oxygen is transported by blood (haemolymph) <-- contains haemocyanin which is an oxygen binding protein
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The haemolymphy transports:
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nutrients, hormones, immune cells/proteins, and waste products
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Alimentary canal
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3 parts:
-Foregut: ingestion, transport, storage (sometimes), mechanical digestion
-Midgut: enzyme production, chemical digestion, absorption
- Hindgut: water re-absorption
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Reproductive organs: Females
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-External: teregum, cercus, ovipositor, gonopore
-Internal: ovarial ligment, ovarioles, OVARY, lateral oviproducy, calyx, common oviduct, spermathacal gland, SPERMATHECAE, ACCESSORY GLAND, genital chamber, vagina
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Reproductive organs: Males
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- External: accessory gland, sperm duct, cercus, anus, penis, ejaculatory duct
- Interal: sperm tubes, TESTIS, sperm duct, ACCESSORY GLANDS, SEMINAL VESICLE, ejaculatory duct, penis
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Sensory Preception:
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-Bristles or Setae:
-Smell:
-Vision
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Mechanoreceptors:
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subgenual organs, johnstons organs, tympanal organ
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Vision:
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-Dermal detection: light sensitive cells or receptors under the cuticle
-Stemmata: visual organ of some insect larvae, similar to ommatidia
-Ocelli: ocellus (damesfly and jumping spider)
-compound eyes
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Smell:
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antennae, palps
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Bristles or setae:
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touch, chemical perception (taste)
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Insect wings
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-Indirect flight muscles: no hinge betweenn wings
-Direct flight muscles: hinged between
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Respiratory System:
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main trachea, and spiracles
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Whats an allergic reaction:
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relatively harmless substance or allergen elicits an out-of-proportion reaction of the immune system
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Types of allergic reactions:
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-local allergic reactions, large local reactions, systemic allergic reactions (anaphylaxis)
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local allergic reactions
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where allergen makes contact with the body: lung, nose, skin
example: house dust allergy, mosquito bite
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large local reactions
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-often peaks 12 hours after exposure, can be strong enough to constrict blood vessels or nerves to extremities, these may last as long as 10 days
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systemic allergic reactions
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-more likely to occur when allergen reaches blood or lymph
-most extreme case: anaphylactic shock <--- dangerously low blood pressure and constriction of bronchia
-often caused by wasp, bee and ant stings
-if you have a systematic reaction you are at risk for anaphylactic shock next ti…
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Signs of anaphylaxis:
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-generally: apprehension, uneasiness, weakness
-cutaneous: redness, ithcing, rash, swelling
-gestrointestinal: abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhea
-genito-urinary: urinary or fecal incontinence
-respiratory: chest tightness, weezing, trouble breathing
-cardiovascular: dizziness, lig…
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management of allergic reactions:
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local reaction: antihistamines and topical corticosteroids
sever local: antihistamines, systemic steroids, high potency topical steroids, rest and elevation of limb, avoid exercise
-if near eye, throat, or wide spread swelling then seek medical attention
systemic reaction: emergenc…
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Common arthropod causes of allergic reactions
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-blood feeding insect bites:
-bites and stings:
-Inhalation of body parts:
-Ingestion of insect parts
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Inhalation of body parts:
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house mites ,cockroaches, mass emergences of caddis flies and mayflies <-- symptoms are inflammation of nose mucous membranes, eczema, hives, asthma
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bites and stings:
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bees, ants, wasps, black widow, brown recluse <--most likely to cause systemic reactions
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blood feeding insect bites
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flea bite
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ingestion of insect parts
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cockroaches, adult beetles (weevils, meal works), moths, fly larvae
-symptoms: diarrhea, abdomincal pain, peri-anal itch
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Arthropods with venomous bite:
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spiders, centipedes
-bited are for subduing and predigestion of prey
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Centipedes:
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-3,000 speices
-most nocturnal, hide during day, emerge at night
-largest ones (Scolopendra <-- very painful bite, subsides with 6-8 hours, rarely fatal)
-anxiety, vomiting, irregular pulse, dizziness, and headache
-house centipedes eat spiders, bedbugs, termites, cockroaches, silverf…
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Texas scholopendromorph Centipedes
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-largest and most significant: Giant Redheaded Centipede (up to 9 inches long)
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Spider bites
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-36,000 species, and all but one family are venomous
-only a few dozen produce medically significant bites in humans
-three groups of problematic spiders:
1. Brown recluse
2. Widow Spiders
3. Hobo Spiders
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Recluse Spiders (violin spiders)
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-13 species in the US that can produce necrotic lesions
-three produce most bites:
1. Loxosceles reclusa Brown recluse
2. L. laeta Chilean recluse
3. L. arizonica Arizona Brown Spider
-brown recluse is most problematic
-venom is necrotic, not neurologic
-prefers warm and dry areas …
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How to recognize brown recluse?
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-they have 3 pairs of 2 eyes, with space between them, others have 8 eyes
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how often do brown recluse bite?
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-very docile, bite almost always occur:
1. during sleep
2. inside clothing
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symptoms of a brown recluse bite vary from:
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1. no reaction
2. mild, red wound
3. nerotic lesion
-systemic reactions are very rare
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nerotic lesions from brown recluse
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-produce ulcers 1-25 cm
-necrosis: disorganized breakdown of flesh in some part of the party
-healing can take months
-bite usually painless until 3-8 hours later
-assymetrical lesions are typical of brown recluse
^ many necrotic wounds caused by Stapylococcus an dStreptococcus are …
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Widow Spiders
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-five species in the US 9not all have the hour glass) brown widow, red widow, northern black widow, western widow, black widow
-there is variation within species
-like protected places (crawl spaces, holes, piles of rocks, bricks or firewood, dense plant growth
-only females bite, mal…
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Hobo spiders
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-medical significance is controversial
- number of necrotic bites have gone up in last 30 years in north west
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Sidney Funnel Web Spider
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-Habitat: burrows, rotton logs, tree holes, rock crevices
-as many as 100 may form a colony
-males in search of females may wander into houses (esp. during rainy weather)
-VERY AGGRESSIVE
-can cause death in as little as 15-30 minutes
-however in many cases no venom is injected and n…
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Tarantulas
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-in US, they are in family Theraphosidae (hunting spiders)
-none are known to have a bite that is deadly to humans
-new world species have urticating hairs
-barbed hairs are irritating and can cause serious irritation if inhales
-skin rash, eye problems
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Arthropods with venomous sting:
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Hymenoptera: bees, wasps, ants
Scorpions:
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Hymenoptera- Wasps:
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-in all, stinger is modified ovipositor, which may no longer function in oviposition (social insects)
-many wasps have venom: 15,000 species of stinging wasps, 95% problematic
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Social Insect:
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-Colonies are composed of:
Queens- reproduction
Males-reproduction
Workers- sterile females
-Colony is also called a super organism
-function of colony is to grow large enough to produce many males and queens that will est. new colonies
-workers specialize in broodcare, foraging, an…
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Justin O. Schmidt Pain Index:
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1.0 Sweat Bee: light, ephemeral, almost fruity
1.2 Fire ant: sharp, suden, middy alarming
2.0 Bald faced Hornet: Rich, hearty slightly crunchy
2.0 Honey Bee:
3.0 Red Harvester Ant: bold and unrelenting
3.0 Paper Wasp: Caustic and burning, bitter aftertaste
4.0 Bullet Ant…
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Most Problematic Wasps:
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-Yellow jackets
-Honet Vespa Cabro:
-Paper Wasps
-Honey Bee
-Killer Bees
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Killer Bees or Africanized Honey Bee
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*introduced from africa to brazil in 1956, by Warwick Kerr to cross with European bee to produce a type more adapted to tropical climate
*escaped in 1957, 1990: southern tx, 1993: arizona, 1995: california, 2005: florida
*medical importance: 1000 deaths since introduction, 14 deaths in …
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Honey Bee:
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introduces from Europe to produce honey and pollination in agriculture
*most colonies are artificial
*produces colonies and can mobilize workers for defense of colony
*bee stinger is barbed and will stay in victim
*produces pheromone that marks the victim for other workers
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Paper Wasps
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*200 species worldwide
*great affinity for building in and around buildings, encounters with humans are common
*other queens sometimes join colonies and compete for reproductive dominance
*mature colonies are 30-70 adults
*colony is single, open faced cone
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Honest Vespa Cabro
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*introduced in US in 1850
*closely related to Yellow Jackets & similar in biology
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Yellow Jackets
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*26 species
*mature colony size ranges from 500-15000 cells
*colonies are build either suspended in air or underground and in structures
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Ants
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-all bite, only some sting
-two main groups of medically relevant ants:
1. Imported Fire ants
-Red imported fire ant
-black imported fire ant
2. Harvester ants: 26 species in US, sting is very painful and very aggressive
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Fire Ants
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-extremely aggressive, at slightest disturbance large numbers of workers are mobilized
-sting: burning sensation at first and welt 24 hrs pustule develops
-no evidence venom can kill humans (unless allergic)
-hypersensitivity is a problem
-introduces in early half of 20th century
-r…
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Scorpions
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-2000 species worldwide
-contains neurotoxic venom <-- interferes with transmission of neural impulses
-annual number of scorpion stings exceeds 1.2 million leading to more than 3250 deaths
-only handful are deadly, the most at risk are children, elderly, infirm
-Deathstalker: most po…
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Centruroides exilicauda (Arizona Bark Scorpion)
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-america's most dangerous scorpion, mostly to infants and children.
-no deaths reported since 1968 in US
-antivenom is experimental, non FDA approved and only available in Arizona
-Distrubtion USA: Arizona, California, Nevade, New Mexico and UTA, and northwestern MExico
-Treatment: St…
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Texas Scorpions:
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-only 18 speices and only one Striped Bark Scorpion (Centruroides Vittatus) is in eastern part of the state
-C. Vittatus is an active forager and will climb trees and move into attics. When its warm it will move down into living quarters
-sting of species causes local pain and swelling
…
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Millipedes
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-vegetarians, feed on dead plant and leave matter
-come produce irritating secretions
-symptoms to exposure: pain, itching, local erythema, edema, blisters, eczema, and occasionally cracked skin
-some non US speices produce Hydrogen cyanide
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Caterpillars
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-150 species are medically relevant
-several species produce irritation (stinging) hairs that release poison when touched
-fatalities are rare
-generally: local reaction, swelling, pain, numbness
-systemic reaction: nausea headache, committing, paralysis, acute renal failure
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Blister Beetles, Family Meloidae
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-when ingested: abdominal pain, kidney damage, and sometimes death
-in case of hay (alfalfa), infestation may kill horses (50 beetles)
-striped blister beetle
-spanish fly: blister beetle from southern europe: used in aphrodisiac
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Introduction to evolutionary theory
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-Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer
-Evolution is not really about survival -> reproduction is key concept
-one of the main forces of evolution:
*natrual selection: heritable traits that increase relative reproductive success will become fixed in a population
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Fitness:
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-the proportion of the individual's genes in the next generation
-of population size is stable, 1 copy of a gene on average contributes one copy to the next generation
-if all individuals contribute equally, all have fitness =1 (means no change in frequency, unless by chance, "genetic …
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r strategists
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r=growth rate
-r strategists optimize growth
- beetles
-high fecundity
-small body size
-early maturity
-short generation time
-ability to disperse offspring widely
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K strategists
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-K= carrying capacity
-K strategists optimize competition in crowded niche
-low fecundity
-lot of investment in each offspring (parental care)
-large body size
-long generation time
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Virulence:
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-the degree of pathogenicity of infectious disease
-high virulence: high mortality, severe illness (example: malaria, yellow fever)
-low virulence: low/no mortality, minor symptoms (example: common cold)
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a pathogen's reproductive success depends crucially on:
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its ability to find a suitable host
-in order for a species of pathogen to survive every sick host needs to infect 1 new host on average
-just 1 new infection/host -> pathogen level in host population does not change
-less then <1 new infection/host -> pathogen goes extinct
- greater …
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How are virulence and transmission correlated?
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-Depends on transmission mode:
example> common cold, no known fatalities, not bad enough that you stay in bed, so direct transmission between people through hand contact, sneezing -> airborne pathogens and through objects
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Malaria transmission:
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two hosts
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modes of transmission select for high virulence:
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-water-borne transmission
-sit and wait transmission
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water borne transmission:
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Thypoid fever, cholera, gangerour forms of dysentery
-diarrhea: immoblized patient release pathogens on bed sheets or clothing which will be in contact with the water
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sit and wait transmission
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some can survive outside of hosts for many days or even years
-example: small pox, Variola major kills 30-35%, 3oo-500 million deaths in the 20th century, eradication of small pox in December 1979, small pox can exist outside of a hose for more than a decade
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Other disease that can remain pathogenic outside host for long time:
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Cornynebacterium diptheriae, Bordetella pertussis (whooping cough), Streptococcus pneumoniae, Influenza virus (can exist for more than 10 days)
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Evolutionary Epidemiology:
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when making decisions about control methods, take long term perspective and focus on reducing transmission of disease (example: development of new drugs) -> This should reduce virulence, or replace pathogenic staring with less pathogenic strains
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Examples of evolution of disease virulence:
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-Syphilis: treatment with Plasmodium knowlesi <- induces fever and kills Treponema palladium, which causes syphillus
*P. knowlesi was transferred directly from patient to patient using a syringe
*after 170 transfers it was as dangerous as neurosyphilis
-Cholera: endemic countries in …
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changes in behavior of mosquito by parasite:
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malaria infected mosquitos have less salivary apyrase (a platelet inhibitor)
-mosquitoes spend more time feeding
-probe more often
-more persistent in biting
-feed more often
(compared to uninfected)
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Adaptation of humans to malaria
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-Sickle cell gene:
*1-20% of all sub-Saharan Africans carry this gene
*In US approx. 1 in 5,000, mostly in people from African decent
*Heterozygotes are almost always asymptomatic: (1 copy) -> resistance against malaria
*Homozygotes have sickle cell anemia: (2 copies) -> very serious …
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Dynamics of Vector-Borne disease:
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1. Vector competence: ability of a vector to transmit a pathogen (can pathogen grow inside vector)
2. Vectorial Capacity: rate at which future inoculations arise from a currently infective case (c= average number of new infections arising daily from a single infection)
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Vectorial Capactiy =c=
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(ma^2VP^n)/(-logeP)
*m=number of vectors per human
*a=number of human blood meals per mosquito per day
*V= vector competence
*P= daily survival rate
*n= incubation period in vector (extrinsic incubation period)
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what are most sensitive components of vector capacity:
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*a= number of human blood meals per mosquito per day
*P= daily survival rate
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one more parameter that is relevant:
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r= rate at which people recover from infection (=1/ number of recovery days <- number of days people remain infective)
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Basic Reproduction Number =R=
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(ma^2VP^n)/(-rlnP)
* if R<1: infections decrease eventually pathogen goes extinct
* if R > 1: # of infections increase
* if R=1: # of infections stays same
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Evolution of blood feeding is thought to have occurred along two main routes:
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1. close association with vertebrates
2. Mophological Pre-adaption for piercing
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Close association with vertebrates
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Arthropods that did not have any pre-adaptation for blood feeding
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Morphological Pre-adaption for Piercing
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Blood feeders are often found in entomophagous groups with piercing mouthparts
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Host Preferences:
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-most blood suckers show preference for a certain host species
-degree of host specialization varies from species to species
-direct relationship between locomotory capabilities and number of different hosts it utilizes
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What type of hosts are favored?
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-Large social herbivores: abundant, easily visible
-Small vertebrates: suffer great blood loss, stronger host defenses
-Less favored: carnivores they are less abundant, solitary
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Ecological determination of host choice:
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-
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memory in host seeking mosquitoes:
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-blood fed mosquitoes return to the same host in higher numbers than expected
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Two types of mouth parts in blood feeding insects:
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1. Piercing and sucking: lice, mosquitoes, bugs, fleas
2. Rip, tear, or cut followed by lapping up or sucking: Tabanids, blackflies, biting flies
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Host searching:
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1. Appetitive searching
2. Activation and orientation
3. Attraction
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Appetitive Searching
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Refers to the phase in which insects have yet to detect a host cue
a. passive (ticks)
b. active (everything else)
-Timing of host seeking is important:
*often delayed for the first few days of adult life <- mouth isn't hard enough for piercing, insects aren't physiologically ready f…
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Activation and orientation:
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a. Olfaction: component in all blood seeking insects, CO2 plays a role in almost all species
*insects respond to odor by flying upwind
b. vision: most widely used by diurnal insects in open habitat (black flies)
*shorter distance than olfaction
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Attraction:
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-How does insect make decision to land
1. Vision
2. Smell
3. Heat
(mixture of those three)
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Vertebrate haemostasis:
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bleeding at site of tissue damage is stopped by series of interrelated mechanisms (Vasocontriction, Platelet Aggregation, Coagulation)
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Pharmacology of Blood Feeding Insect Saliva:
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-NO DIGESTIVE ENZYMES!
-almost all species studied produce: Vasodilator, Anti-platelet compound, anti coagulant
-Saliva compounds often also reduce pain, but few have anesthetics
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Managing blood meal:
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-Temporary ectoparasites take large bloodmeals (hosts may be hard to find, feeding is risky, abdomen is very extendible)
- Permanent ectoparasites take small blood meals
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Feeding Strategy:
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1. Only larval forms feed on blood
2. Insects that feed excessively on blood throughout their life
3. Insects in which only adults feed on blood
I. obligatory blood feeders (fleas)
*females always have endosymbionts, blood lacks certain nutrients essential to female production
II. bo…
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Autogeny
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ability to lay eggs before blood feeding for first time
-facultative: allows insects to decide between blood feeding or reproduction
-obligatory: if hosts are rare
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Genus Toxorhynchitinae
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94 species, mainly tropical, some species in US
-adult males and females feed on plat vector -> don't transmit disease
-larvae live mostly in container habitats
-larvae are predaceous on other mosquito larvae may eat 400 larvae)
-vertical when at rest
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Anophelinae
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-3 genera: Anopheles, Chagasi, Bironella
-473 species described
-all females blood feed
-only Anopheles species transmit disease -> malaria, fliariasis, arboviruses
-most have dark and pale scales
-adults rest at an angle
-adults are crepuscular/nocturnal
-blood feeding is from dus…
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Culicinae:
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-38 genera
-2750 species
-Important Genera: AEDES, CULEX, mansonia, Haemagogus, sabethes
-angle of the body?
-eggs don't have floats
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Culex:
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-eggs are layid in pools, puddles, ditches, borrow pits, rice fields
-Cluex quinquefasciatus: breed in water with high organic content
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Aedes:
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-Wide distribution
-Breed in: Marshes, ground pools, snow melt pools, many species green in container habitats (tree holes, plant axils)
-eggs can withstand desiccation (for several weeks)
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Aedes Aegypti
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-breeds in water storage pots or jars
-transmits yellow fever
-fromm Africa, brought to new world in 15th or 16th century
-found near or in human habitation
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Mosquito mating
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1. males form arial swarms
* females are seized and mater
*most common in crespecular or nocturnal
2. Males and Females assemble at locations of biological significance (emergence sites, around host)
3. Males approach resting females
*typically bright diurnal species
-femlaes beco…
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Malaria:
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-one of worlds most devastating infectious disease
-Africa is worst affected (90% of deaths, 25% child death due to malaria)
major control efforts (1950-70) reduce whorl exposure from 64% to 38%
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Human Malaria:
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1. Plasmodium falciparum (Dominant in Africa)
2. Plasmodium vivax (80-90% of cases in Asia)
3. Plasmodium ovale (3,4,5 minor importance)
4. Plasmodium malariae
5. Plasmodium knowlesi
Mainly transmitted by 30-40 species of Anopheles mosquitoes
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Malaria Symptoms:
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Chills, sweats, headache, convalescence, nausea, committing, diarrhea, anemia, muscle, joint and back pain, enlarged spleen, dry cough
serious cases: kidney failure, brain damage, coma, death
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P. falciparum
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-symptoms 9-14 days, most virulent form, 2nd greatest killer of humans in tropics, only one liver, 48 hour fever cycle
-DEATH from cerebral malaria or kidney failure
-primarily Africa
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P. Vivax
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-12 - 18 days
-attacks on 48 hour cycle
-shizont in liver can survive up to 8 years (relapses)
-only infect young red blood cells
-Mostly Asia
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P. malariae
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72 hour cycle
-reaction can occur up to 53 yrs post infection (controversial)
-only infect old RBC's
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P. ovale
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-rarest form in humans
-48 hour cycle
-hypnozoite
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|
Unstable transmission
|
Irregular Seasonal transmission
-Hypoendemic: adults susceptible
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Stable transmission
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Malaria transmission always present
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ENTO 210: EXAM 1