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Exam 1 Review: Biol 319
What is Anatomy? |
The scientific study of the structure of thebody |
What is physiology? |
The scientific study of the function of the body |
What 4 elements make up most of the body's molecules? |
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen |
What compound makes up more than 60% of our weight? |
H2O |
What is gross anatomy? |
Study of large body structures |
What is systemic anatomy? |
Study of systems of grouped structures |
What is histology? |
Study of tissues (groups of cells) |
What is cell biology? |
Study of cells |
What is the medical specialty called in which the physician diagnosis diseases based on a biopsy sample using histological techniques? |
Pathology |
To study subcellular anatomy (that of organelles) is a light microscope sufficient? Why or why not? |
You could only see the cell shape and nucleus with a light microscope. An electron microscope is necessary to view organelles due to it's magnification and resolution abilities. |
What is the difference between tissues and organs? |
A tissue is a group of cells that work together for the same purpose. An organ is a group of tissues that work together for the same purpose. |
What are the tissue types? |
Epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous |
What is an organ? |
A specialized group of tissues that performs a particular function or set of functions |
What are the cardiovascular system's components? |
Heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, blood |
What is anastomosis? |
a cross-connection between adjacent channels, tubes, fibers, or other parts of a network. |
What is the function of the cardiovascular system? |
Transport nutrients, O2, and CO2, over distance |
Why is the heart considered 2 pumps on one? |
Your heartbeat is made up of two contractions. The top of the heart contracts to push the blood to the bottom chambers and the bottom chambers contract to push the blood either to the lungs in the case of the right ventricle or the body in the case of the left ventricle to the body. |
What are anastomoses? |
Anastomoses between arteries and between veins result in a multitude of arteries and veins, respectively, serving the same volume of tissue. Such anastomoses occur normally in the body in the circulatory system, serving as backup routes for blood to flow if one link is blocked or otherwise compromised, but may also occur pathologically. |
The term cardiac refers to... |
of, near, or relating to the heart |
What systems can the term cardiac refer to? |
Respiratory, lymphatic |
How does the appearance of blood change as it moves from arteries across a capillary plexus into veins? |
Oxygenated blood is bright red. Deoxygenated blood is dark red |
Why do veins appear blue? |
The reasons are physical and stem directly from the way in which light interacts with blood (how it is absorbed) and with skin (in this case, how light is reflected). |
What is an artery? |
any of the muscular-walled tubes forming part of the circulation system by which blood (mainly that which has been oxygenated) is conveyed from the heart to all parts of the body. |
What is a vein? |
any of the tubes forming part of the blood circulation system of the body, carrying in most cases oxygen-depleted blood toward the heart. |
What is a capillary? |
any of the fine branching blood vessels that form a network between the arterioles and venules. |
How does the branching of capillaries relate to their proximity to cells? |
The term capillary exchange refers to all exchanges at microcirculatory level, most of which occurs in the capillaries. Sites where material exchange occurs between the blood and tissues are the capillaries, which branch out to increase the swap area, minimize the diffusion distance as well as maximize the surface area and the exchange time |
What are the 3 types of muscle? |
Cardiac, smooth, skeletal |
What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle? |
Cardiac muscle cells are located in the walls of the heart, appear striated, and are under involuntary control. |
What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle? |
Skeletal muscle fibers occur in muscles which are attached to the skeleton. They are striated in appearance and are under voluntary control. |
What are the characteristics of smooth muscle? |
Smooth muscle fibers are located in walls of hollow visceral organs, except the heart, appear spindle-shaped, and are also under involuntary control. |
What organs are likely to have smooth muscle tissue as part of their makeup? |
Most internal organs EXCEPT THE HEART |
What type of muscle tissue is most abundant in the body? |
Skeletal Muscle |
Is skeletal muscle always attached to bone? What are some exceptions? |
No, facial and inner ear muscles |
Is skeletal muscle always under conscious control? If not, what are the exceptions? |
No, Reflexes |
Is smooth muscle ever under voluntary control? |
No |
What is a smooth muscle lined organ that is cylindrical in shape? |
Esophagus |
How does having a muscular component to an artery's structure affect the physiological properties of the artery? |
Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the other parts of the body. Arteries also have thicker walls as the blood pressure is much higher having a closer proximity to the heart. |
Why do large arteries have a tough connective tissue ring as part of their structure? |
Rings of dense connective tissue lie at the plane in which the A-V orifices and aortic and pulmonary valves lie; these rings make up the skeleton of the heart. These tough rings prevent dilating of tissue in this area. |
What is the peripheral nervous system? |
The nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. |
What is the Central Nervous system? |
Brain and Spinal cord |
Which nervous system division is mainly charged with integrating information, making decisions, and initiating commands to muscles and or glands? |
CNS |
Is the skeleton made solely of bones? What are the exceptions? |
No; ligaments, tendons, and TEETH |
How does having a muscular component to an artery's structure affect the physiological properties of the artery? |
Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the other parts of the body. Arteries also have thicker walls as the blood pressure is much higher having a closer proximity to the heart. |
How is the term scaffolding relevant to the skeleton? |
A skeleton is the scaffolding, or support, for the body |
What makes bones hard? |
Bones are made up of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and other minerals, as well as the protein collagen. Calcium is needed to make bones hard, which allows them to support body weight. |
What do the bones of the skeleton store? |
Bone tissues store several minerals, including calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P). When required, bone releases minerals into the blood - facilitating the balance of minerals in the body. |
Why are calcium and phosphate so important to the body? |
Calcium plays a key role in nerve and muscle function, enzyme function, and mineral balance in bone. Phosphate participates in pH buffering and is a major constituent of macromolecules and bones. |
What organs does the skeletal system protect? |
The brain, eyes, heart, lungs and spinal cord are all protected by your skeleton. |
What organs make up the integumentary system? |
The integumentary system is an organ system consisting of the skin, hair, nails, and exocrine glands.. |
Finish the following statement: skin is not just for show, it is a vital organ for survival because… |
Skin is the protective layer of the body
Nitrogenous matter must be expelled through the skin's pores (can be fatal if wastes build up in blood
Perspiration must occur for cooling & excretion
Skin infections can cause problems in other parts of the body |
What is the function of the Pineal gland? |
Regulation of circadian rhythms |
What is the function of the adrenal gland? |
Releases adrenaline |
What are the functions of the thyroid & pituitary glands? |
Stress regulation |
What is the function of the gonads? |
Male or female reproductive glands that produce testosterone and estrogen |
What is the function of glucocorticoids? |
regulation of stress through release of glucose |
T/F: The brain is an endocrine system component |
True |
What is the function of aldosterone? |
Regulation of minerals in the body |
What is a hormone? |
a regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids such as blood or sap to stimulate specific cells or tissues into action.
a synthetic substance with an effect similar to that of an animal or plant hormone.
a person's sex hormones as held to influence behavior or mood. |
What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine? |
Exocrine refers to ducts that secrete some solution. Endocrine refers to glands that produce and release hormones and neurotransmitters via the blood, affecting only specific target cells. |
What does the word root "-crine" indicate? |
Secretion |
What are some examples of exocrine glands? |
Examples of exocrine glands include the sweatglands, salivary glands, mammary glands, and liver. |
What endocrine gland is the master gland? |
The thyroid gland, ovaries, testes, mammary glands, and the cortex of the adrenal glands are all stimulated by the hormones of the anteriorpituitary, resulting in the pituitary gland being known as the “master gland” for its control of the endocrine system. |
What gland has both essential endocrine and exocrine functions? |
The pancreas |
What are some diseases that result in failure of endocrine physiology? |
Diabetes, Hypo-/hyper- Thyroidism |
How does the lymphatic system compare and contrast with the cardiovascular system? |
The human body has two circulatory systems: cardiovascular and the lymphatic. Both are responsible for circulating fluids through the body, but while the cardiovascular system circulates blood via a closed system of vessels, lymphatic fluid is not pumped but passively flows from tissues into lymphatic vessels. |
How does lymph compare with blood? |
Blood regulates body temperature, maintains a constant pH and water balance, and transports digested food materials, respiratory gases, and waste materials. Lymph serves as the middle man between the blood and tissues, transports digested fats, fat soluble vitamins, etc., filters and disposes of bacteria and other foreign particles, stores lymphocytes, and carries absorbed lipids from the small intestine to the blood. |
What are lymph nodes? |
each of a number of small swellings in the lymphatic system where lymph is filtered and lymphocytes are formed. |
What is the major function of the thymus and where is it located? |
The thymus serves a vital role in the training and development of T-lymphocytes or T cells, an extremely important type of white blood cell. The thymus is a lymphoid gland comprised of two identically sized lobes, located behind the sternum, and in front of the heart. |
How does the thymus change as we age? |
the shrinking of the thymus with age, resulting in changes in the architecture of the thymus and a decrease in tissue mass. |
What are the two broad categories of lymphocytes and how is their name relevant to their origin or residence? |
T-Cells mature in the thymus. B-cells mature in the bone marrow |
What is the driving force pushing interstitial fluid into the lymphatic system? |
Passive diffusion (pressure is higher in blood than in lymph, so it moves from an area of high pressure to low) |
What is the purpose of the lymphatic system? |
-to collect and return interstitial fluid, including plasma protein to the blood, and thus help maintain fluid balance
-to defend the body against disease by producing lymphocytes
-to absorb lipids from the intestine and transport them to the blood |
What is the pharynx? |
the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus. |
What is the nasopharynx? |
he upper part of the pharynx, connecting with the nasal cavity above the soft palate. |
What is the oropharynx? |
the part of the pharynx that lies between the soft palate and the hyoid bone. |
What is the larynx? |
the hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal cords in humans and other mammals; the voice box. |
What is the trachea? |
a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the larynx to the bronchial tubes and conveying air to and from the lungs; the windpipe. |
Approximately how many alveoli are in each lung? |
300 million |
What is the diaphragm? |
a dome-shaped, muscular partition separating the thorax from the abdomen in mammals. It plays a major role in breathing, as its contraction increases the volume of the thorax and so inflates the lungs. |
What tissue type is found in the trachea, but not the esophagus? |
Hyline Cartilage |
What gases are exchanged in the lungs? |
O2 and CO2 |
How does the structure of alveoli help its function? |
The walls of the alveoli are one cell thick. This gives the oxygen and the carbon dioxide a short pathway for diffusion - making it diffuse faster. |
Can the activity of the respiratory system effect blood pH? |
The respiratory system responds by increasing respiration and decreasing CO2 to help bring the pH of the blood up toward normal. |
What is the function of the esophagus? |
to carry food, liquids, and saliva from the mouth to the stomach |
What is the function of the stomach? |
to break down and digest food in order to extract necessary nutrients from what you have eaten. |
what is the function of the gallbladder? |
to store and concentrate bile, a yellow-brown digestive liquid produced by the liver |
what is the function of the exocrine pancreas? |
helps in digestion |
what is the function of the liver? |
Production of bile, which helps carry away waste and break down fats in the small intestine during digestion
Production of certain proteins for blood plasma
Production of cholesterol and special proteins to help carry fats through the body
Store and release glucose as needed
Processing of hemoglobin for use of its iron content (the liver stores iron)
Conversion of harmful ammonia to urea (urea is one of the end products of protein metabolism that is excreted in the urine)
Clearing the blood of drugs and other harmful substances
Regulating blood clotting
Resisting infections by producing immune factors and removing bacteria from the bloodstream |
what is the function of the small intestine? |
absorption of nutrients and minerals from food. |
what is the function of the large intestine? |
to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter and transmit the useless waste material from the body. |
What is a bolus? |
a small rounded mass of a substance, especially of chewed food at the moment of swallowing. |
What is chyme? |
the pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food. |
what is the ph of the stomach? |
about 2 |
How does your stomach protect itself from acid? |
The stomach is protected by the epithelial cells, which produce and secrete a bicarbonate-rich solution that coats the mucosa. Bicarbonate is alkaline, a base, and neutralizes the acid secreted by the parietal cells, producing water in the process. This continuous supply of bicarbonate is the main way that your stomach protects itself from autodigestion (the stomach digesting itself) and the overall acidic environment. |
How does your stomach create an acidic environment? |
Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid, a strong acid that helps to break down food. The acid in your stomach is so concentrated that if you were to place a drop on a piece of wood, it would eat right through it. The g-cells produce gastrin, a hormone that facilitates the production of hydrochloric acid by the parietal cells. |
What exocrine gland secretes a solution to the duodenum to neutralize pH of the chyme? |
the pancreas |
why is the stomach muscular? |
It's muscular because it expands to accommodate the food we ingest. It retains and releases food at a steady rate during digestion. |
What are the parts of the small intestine, in order? |
duodenum, jejunum, illeum |
What are the 4 major macromolecules of food that can be broken down and absorbed by the small intestine? |
Carbohydrates, lipids, fats, proteins |
What role does bile have in digestion? |
Contains salt to break down fat. |
What is a nephrologist? |
a medical doctor who specializes in kidney care and treating diseases of the kidneys. |
What type of metabolic waste is specifically gotten rid of by the renal system? |
Nitrogenous urine |
Urea is produced from the breakdown of... |
Amino acids |
What controls kidney function? |
Hormones from the pituitary |
What hormone regulates salt reabsorption by the kidney? |
aldosterone |
What gland produces aldosterone? |
Adrenal gland |
How many nephrons are in each kidney? |
1 million |
What elements of blood are initially allowed to filter out of the glomerulus? |
water, salt, glucose, urea |
What is the primary driving force (pressure) that produces glomerular filtration? |
hydrostatic pressure of blood (blood pressure) |
What is a sphincter? |
a ring of muscle surrounding and serving to guard or close an opening or tube, such as the anus or the openings of the stomach. |
What are the layers from inner to outer of a serous membrane? |
Visceral pericardium, Pericardial space (containing serous fluid), parietal pericaridum |
What are the 3 serous membranes of the body cavity? |
Pericardium (heart), pleurae (lungs), and peritoneum (abdominopelvic cavity) |
What is pneumothorax? |
the presence of air or gas in the cavity between the lungs and the chest wall, causing collapse of the lung. |
What is peritonitis? |
inflammation of the peritoneum, typically caused by bacterial infection either via the blood or after rupture of an abdominal organ. |
What does "-itis" refer to? |
Inflammation |
What does veriform mean? |
worm |
What are electrolytes? |
the ionized or ionizable constituents of a living cell, blood, or other organic matter. (salt) |
what type of diabetes is caused by failure of homeostasis? |
2 |
what electrolytes are regulated in the body? |
Sodium and potassium |
Does average water content in the body change throughout life? |
Yes, children and infants are approximately 80% water, adults are approximately 60% |
Where does the Olfactory (I) nerve exit from the skull? |
Cribiform plate of ethmoid |
Where does the Optic (II) nerve exit from the skull? |
Optic canal of sphenoid |
Where does the Oculomotor (III) nerve exit from the skull? |
Superior orbital fissure |
Where does the Trochlear (IV) nerve exit from the skull? |
Superior orbital fissure |
Where does the Trigeminal (V1) nerve exit from the skull? |
Superior orbital fissure |
Where does the Trigeminal (V2) nerve exit from the skull? |
Foramen Rotundum |
Where does the Trigeminal (V3) nerve exit from the skull? |
Foramen ovale |
Where does the Abductens (VI) nerve exit from the skull? |
Superior orbital fissure |
Where does the Facial (VII) nerve exit from the skull? |
Middle ear |
Where does the Vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve exit from the skull? |
Internal auditory meatus |
Where does the Glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve exit from the skull? |
Jugular foramen |
Where does the Vagus (X) nerve exit from the skull? |
Jugular foramen |
Where does the Spinal Accessory (XI) nerve exit from the skull? |
Jugular foramen |
Where does the Hypoglossal (XII) nerve exit from the skull? |
Hypoglossal canal |
What does ipsilateral? |
belonging to or occurring on the same side of the body |
What is contralateral? |
relating to or denoting the side of the body opposite to that on which a particular structure or condition occurs. |
What systems do anastomoses refer to? |
Cardiovascular, lymphatic, and respiratory |
What is autonomic? |
involuntary or unconscious; relating to the autonomic nervous system. |
What is a ganglion? |
a structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies, typically linked by synapses, and often forming a swelling on a nerve fiber |
What is a ganglion? |
a structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies, typically linked by synapses, and often forming a swelling on a nerve fiber |
What is the difference between nuclei and ganglia? |
In the central nervous system, a collection of neuron cell bodies is called a nucleus.
In the peripheral nervous system, a collection of neuron cell bodies is called a ganglion (plural: ganglia). |
What is anosmia? |
the loss of the sense of smell, either total or partial. It may be caused by head injury, infection, or blockage of the nose. |
What nerve has both afferent and efferent pathways? |
Mandibular division of trigeminal nerve (V) |
What is extrinsic strabismus? |
Paralytic Strabismus: is the type of strabismus where we have paresis or paralysis of any of the extrinsic muscle of the eye. |
What is proprioception? |
the senseof the relative position of neighbouring parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement. It is provided by proprioceptors in skeletal striated muscles and in joints. |
What are chemoreceptors? |
a sensory cell or organ responsive to chemical stimuli. |
What are baroreceptors? |
a receptor sensitive to changes in pressure. |
Osmolarity vs. molarity |
A molar solution is a concentration, osmosis goes by total concentration of dissolved particles |
What is the biggest water compartment in the body? |
Cellular contents |
What two functional groups contained within every amino acid make the name “amino acid” such a good description of its structure? |
In general an acid is an organic molecule that contains both acarboxylic acid (-COOH) and an amine (-NH2) functional group. |
How many naturally occurring amino acids are there? |
22 |
what do amino acids have in common? |
All amino acids have a central or alpha carbon, to which are bonded 4 groups: a hydrogen; an amino group; a carboxyl group; a unique side chain, also known as a R-group. |
What type of organic chemistry reaction allows amino acids to join “head to tail” to form bonds? |
Peptide synthesis |
How are amino acids the “alphabet” of proteins? |
Historical single-letter coding for amino acids found in proteins |
What is a polypeptide? |
a linear organic polymer consisting of a large number of amino-acid residues bonded together in a chain, forming part of (or the whole of) a protein molecule. |
what is protein denaturation? |
When a protein is denatured, secondary and tertiary structures are altered but the peptide bonds of the primary structure between the amino acids are left intact. |
is protein denaturation reversible? |
In very few cases (unlike egg whites), denaturation is reversible (theproteins can regain their native state when the denaturing influence is removed). |
Changes in what two conditions can cause denaturation? |
Temperature and pH |