CBIO 2200: Exam 1
149 Cards in this Set
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anatomy
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the study of structure (1.1)
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physiology
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the study of function (1.1)
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palpation
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feeling a structure with the hands (1.1)
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auscultation
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listening to the internal sounds made by the body (1.1)
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percussion
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tapping the body to feel for abnormal resistance and listen for abnormal sounds (1.1)
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dissection
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the careful cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships (1.1)
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comparative anatomy
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the study of more than one species in order to examine the structural similarities and differences and analyze evolutionary trends. (1.1)
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exploratory surgery
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opening the body and taking a look inside to see what is wrong (1.1)
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medical imaging
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methods of viewing the inside of the body without surgery (1.1)
includes computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), sonography, radiography (Xray) (1.7)
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radiology
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the branch of medicine concerned with medical imaging (1.1)
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gross anatomy
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structures that can be seen with the naked eye (1.1)
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histology
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the branch of biology that studies the microscopic structure of animal or plant tissues (aka microscopic anatomy) (1.1)
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Histopathology
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the microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease (1.1)
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cytology
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the study of the structure and function of individual cells (1.1)
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ultrastructure
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the fine detail--down to the molecular level as revealed by electron microscopes (1.1)
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comparative physiology
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the study of how different species have solved problems of life such as water balance, respiration, and reproduction; also the basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures. (1.1)
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Hippocrates
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"father of medicine" ; he and his followers established a code of ethics for physicians--the Hippocratic Oath (1.2)
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Andreas Vesalius
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taught anatomy in Italy and was the first to use very detailed, lifelike art in his writing; he published the first atlas of anatomy (1.2)
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William Harvey
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remembered for his studies in blood circulation (1.2)
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Robert Hook
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improved the compound microscope and coined the term "cell" after viewing a slice of cork (1.2)
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Antony von Leeuwenhoek
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invented the simple microscope and discovered little animalcules in lake water (1.2)
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Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
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concluded that all organisms were composed of cells (1.2)
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Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes
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credited with putting science on the path to modernity by inventing new habits in scientific thought (1.3)
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scientific method
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certain habits of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, and honest analysis of one's observations and conclusions (1.3)
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inductive method
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first described by Bacon, is a process of making numerous observations until one can draw generalizations and predictions from them (1.3)
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hypothetico-deductive method
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the way most physiological knowledge is obtained; an investigator begins by asking questions and formulating a hypothesis which leads to a prediction. Experimentation will either support the original hypothesis or point to a new one (1.3)
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hypothesis
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an educated speculation or possible answer to the question; a good hypotheses must be consistent with what is already known and capable of being tested and possibly falsified (1.3)
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elements of experimental design
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sample size, controls or control group, psychosomatic effects, experimenter bias, statistical testing (1.3)
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sample size
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the number of subjects used in a study (1.3)
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controls / control goup
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the control group subjects must be as much like the treatment group as possible except that they do not receive the treatment (1.3)
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psychosomatic effects
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effects of the subjects state of mind on his or her physiology; these are avoided by the use of placebos in experimental design (1.3)
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experimenter bias
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when conscious or unconscious, it is when the interpretation of results is effected based on desired results (1.3)
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double-blind method
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one in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which subjects are receiving the treatment and which are receiving a placebo; this technique prevents experimenter bias (1.3)
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statistical testing
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looking for statistically significant differences in data and then determining the probability that the data are correct (1.3)
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peer review
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a critical evaluation by other experts in the research field (1.3)
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fact
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information that can be independently verified by any trained person (1.3)
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law of nature
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a generalization about the predictable ways in which matter and energy behave (1.3)
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theory
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an explanatory statement derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypothesis (1.3)
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hierarchy of complexity: most complex to simplest
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organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, macromolecule, molecule, atom (1.5)
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organism
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a single, complete individual (1.5)
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organ system
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a group of organs with a unique collective function; generally, the organs in an organ system are physically interconnected; the human body has 11 organ systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, urinary, digestive, reproductive (1…
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organ
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a structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function
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tissue
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a mass of similar cells and cell products that forms a discrete region of an organ and performs specific function (1.5)
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cell
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the smallest units of an organism that carry out all of the basic functions of life; nothing simpler than a cell is considered alive; cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane (1.5)
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are microscopic structures in a cell that carry out individual functions (1.5)
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are microscopic structures in a cell that carry out individual functions (1.5)
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macromolecules
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the largest molecules--proteins, fats, DNA (1.5)
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molecule
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a particle composed of at least 2 atoms (1.5)
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atom
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the smallest particles with unique chemical identities. (1.5)
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reductionism
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the theory that large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components; first espoused by Aristotle (1.5)
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holism
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theory complementary to reductionism which recognizes that an organism is often more than the sum of its parts (1.5)
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anatomical variation
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what we see in the book are structures common in about 70% of samples; there are many normal variations in anatomy (1.5)
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characteristics of life
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collection of properties that distinguish living things from non-living things: organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, homeostasis, development, reproduction, evolution (1.6)
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organization
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refers to the fact that living things display a higher degree of organization than non-living things (1.6)
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cellular composition
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living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells (1.6)
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metabolism
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consists of the sum of catabolism and anabolism; living things take in molecules from their environment and chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide them with energy. Metabolism requires excretion (1.6)
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anabolism
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relatively complex molecules are synthesized from simpler ones (1.6)
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catabolism
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relatively complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones (1.6)
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excretion
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the separation of wastes from the tissues and their elimination from the body (1.6)
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responsiveness
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the ability of an organism to sense and react to stimuli, also called irritability or excitability. (1.6)
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homeostasis
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homeo = "the same" and stas = "to place, stand, stay" so homeostasis is the ability to maintain internal stability; the body's ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions (1.6)
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development
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any change in form or function over the lifetime of an organism (1.6)
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differentiation
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the transformation of cells with no specialized function into cells that are committed to a specific task (1.6)
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growth
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an increase in size (1.6)
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reproduction
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the ability of living organisms to produce copies of themselves and pass their genes onto offspring (1.6)
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evolution
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genetic changes from generation to generation (1.6)
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reference man
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a healthy male, 22 years old, weighing 70 kg (154 lb), living at a mean ambient temperature of 20 degrees C, engaging in light physical activity, and consuming 2800 kcal per day (1.6)
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reference woman
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a healthy female, 22 years old, weighing 58 kg (128 lb), living at a mean ambient temperature of 20 degrees C, engaging in light physical activity, and consuming 2000 kcal per day (1.6)
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dynamic equilibrium
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balanced change around a set point, or average value, for a given variable (1.6)
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negative feedback
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a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it; negative feedback is the key mechanism for maintaining health (1.6)
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feedback loops
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refers to the fact that feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them (1.6)
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vasodilation
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the widening of blood vessels which can help cool the body (1.6)
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vasoconstriction
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a narrowing of blood vessels which can help the body retain heat (1.6)
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receptor
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structure that senses a change in the body (1.6)
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integrating center / control center
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part of the body that processes the information gained by the receptor and "decides" what the appropriate response should be (1.6)
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effector
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the cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action (1.6)
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positive feedback
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a self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to an even greater change in the same direction--it is a way to produce rapid change (1.6)
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Terminologia Anatomica
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TA - codified in 1998 to standardize the terms of anatomy (1.7)
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eponym
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term coined from the name of a person (1.7)
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acronym
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word composed of the first letter, or first few letters, of a series of words (1.7)
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anatomical position
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the reference position in which:
1. feet are flat on floor and close together.
2. arms are at sides with palms directed forward, or supinated.
3. face is forward (A1).
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supinated
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rotated so that face is anterior, or forward (A1).
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pronated
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rotated so that face is posterior, or backward (A1).
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sagittal plane
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passes vertically through the body or organ and divides into a right and left side (A1)
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midsagittal plane (median plane)
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a sagittal plane that divides the body or organ into two equal halves (A1)
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frontal plane (coronal plane)
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a vertical plane that is perpendicular to the sagittal plane and divides the body into anterior [front] and posterior [back] portions (A1)
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transverse plane
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passes across the body or an organ perpendicular to its long axis and divides the body into superior [upper] and inferior [lower] portions (A1)
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directional terms
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describe the location of one structure relative to another structure; most terms list in opposite pairs: anterior/posterior, rostral/caudal, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, ipsilateral/contralateral, superficial/deep (A1)
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ventral
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toward the front or belly (A1)
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dorsal
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toward the back or spine (A1)
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anterior
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toward the ventral side; belly side in humans (A1)
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posterior
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toward the dorsal side; back in humans (A1)
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cephalic
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toward the head or superior end (A1)
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rostral
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toward the forehead or nose (A1)
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caudal
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toward the tail or inferior end (A1)
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superior
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above (A1)
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inferior
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below (A1)
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medial
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toward the medial plane (A1)
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lateral
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away from the medial plane (A1)
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proximal
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closer to the point of attachment or origin (A1)
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distal
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further from the point of attachment or origin (A1)
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ipsilaeral
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on the same side of the body (A1)
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contralateral
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on the opposite side of the body (A1)
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superficial
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closer to the body surface (A1)
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deep
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farther from the body surface (A1)
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dorsum
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used to denote the upper surface of the foot and the back of the hand even though these areas do not face the same as the back in humans (but they do in cats) (A1)
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axial region
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consists of the head, neck (cervical region) and trunk (A1)
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thoracic region
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region of trunk above the diaphragm (A1)
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abdominal region
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region of trunk below the diaphragm; it is further subdivided into the right upper quadrant [RUQ], right lower quadrant [RLQ], left upper quadrant [LUQ], and left lower quadrant [LLQ]; can also be divided into nine regions the right hypochondriac region, the right lumbar region, the right…
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appendicular region
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consists of the upper and lower limbs (A1)
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upper limbs
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include the arms [brachial region], forearm [antebrachial region], wrist [carpal region], hand [manual region], and fingers [digits]. Strictly speaking, arm refers only to the upper part between the shoulder and the elbow. (A1)
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lower limbs
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include the thigh [femoral region], leg [crural region], ankle [tarsal region], foot [pedal region],and toes [digits]. Strictly speaking, leg refers only to the part between the knee and ankle. (A1)
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segment of a limb
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region between one joint and the next (A1)
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body cavities
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are lined with membranes and contain the internal organs called viscera (A1)
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cranial cavity
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enclosed by the cranium and contains the brain it is continuous with the vertebral cavity and lined with the meninges (A1)
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vertebral cavity
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enclosed by the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord; the vertebral cavity is continuous with the cranial cavity and lined with the meninges (A1)
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thoracic cavity
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during embryonic development the coelom (which becomes the diaphragm) forms the separation between the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity; it is lined with a thin serous membrane; the thoracic cavity is divided by a thick wall called the mediastinum; the two pleural cavities contain the l…
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abdominopelvic cavity
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includes the abdominal cavity which is lined by the peritoneum and contains the digestive organs, spleen, kidneys and also the pelvic cavity which is lined with the peritoneum and contains the bladder, rectum, reproductive organs. The brim of the pelvis delineates the two cavities. (A1)
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posterior mesentery
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a translucent membrane which suspends the intestines from the posterior abdominal wall (A1)
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mesocolon
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the posterior mesentery of the large intestine (A1)
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greater omentum
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a fatty membrane which hangs like an apron from the inferolateral margin of the stomach and overlies the intestines (A1)
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serosa
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part of the visceral peritoneum which wraps around the internal organs and forms an outer layer (A1)
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visceral peritoneum
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consists of the mesenteries and the serosa (A1)
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potential spaces
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spaces between membranes which are normally pressed tightly together but which may contain fluid or other matter under unusual conditions (A1)
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systems of protection, support, movement
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integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system (A1)
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systems of internal communication and integration
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nervous system, endocrine system (A1)
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systems of fluid transport
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circulatory system, lymphatic system (A1)
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systems of input and output
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respiratory system, urinary system, digestive system (A1)
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systems of reproduction
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male reproductive system, female reproductive system (A1)
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integumentary system
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organs: skin, hair, nails, cutaneous glands;
functions: protection, water retention, thermoregulation, vit D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication (A1)
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skeletal system
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organs: bones, cartilages, ligaments;
functions: support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid-base balance (A1)
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muscular system
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organs: skeletal muscles;
functions: movement, stability, communication, control of body openings, heat production (A1)
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lymphatic system
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organs: lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, thymus, spleen, tonsils;
function: recovery of excess tissue fluid, detection of pathogens, production of immune cells, defense against disease (A1)
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respiratory system
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organs: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs;
function: absorption of oxygen, discharge of carbon dioxide, acid-base balance, speech (A1)
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urinary system
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organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra;
function: elimination of wastes, regulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of red blood cell formation, control of fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance, detoxification (A1)
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nervous system
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organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia;
function: rapid internal communication, coordination, motor control and sensation (A1)
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endocrine system
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organs: pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries;
function: hormone production, internal chemical communication and coordination (A1)
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circulatory system
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organs: heart, blood vessels;
function: distribution of nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells, antibodies, fluid, electrolytes, and acid-base balance (A1)
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digestive system
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organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas;
function: nutrient breakdown and absorption. Liver functions include metabolism of carb, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins, disposal …
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male reproductive system
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organs: testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, penis;
function: production and delivery of sperm, secretion of sex hormones (A1)
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female reproductive system
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organs: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands;
function: production of eggs, site of fertilization and fetal development, fetal nourishment, birth, lactation, secretion of sex hormones (A1)
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biochemistry
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the study of molecules composing living organisms
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element
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the simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties
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6 major elements in humans
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oxygen, nitrogen
carbon, calcium
hydrogen, phosphorus
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trace elements
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12 elements that are found in very small amounts in the body but they are very important--generally function as cofactors
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minerals
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inorganic elements that are extracted from the soil by plants and passed up the food chain to humans and other organisms.
Minerals make up about 4% of the human body by weight
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electrolytes
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conduct electrical current in aqueous solution
Main electrolytes in the body are Na+, Cl-, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+; they arrive as CaCl2, Na2HPO4, MgCl2, KCl, NaHCO3, NaCl
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isotope
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varieties of elements which differ from one another only by the number of neutrons in the nucleus; isotopes are not as stable and this instability leads to radioactivity--every element has at least one radioactive isotope
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radioactivity
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radioisotopes decay to stable isotopes and release radiation in the process; people are mildly radioactive; parent isotope decays to daughter isotope
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high energy radiation
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ejects electrons from atoms converting atoms to ions--aka ionizing radiation; can be quickly fatal in high doses; in low doses it is mutagenic and carcinogenic
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CBIO 2200: Exam 1