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PSYC 4220: Test 2
Jean Piaget
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Interested in cognitive development after working with Binet on IQ test
Interested in what children got wrong on test, and examined mistakes
Children think differently than adults
Used unstructured interviews to examine how kids think
Believed cognition develops in a series of stages
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Schemes
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Organized patterns of action/thoughts constructed to interpret experiences
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Piaget: "Children are in a constant state of...."
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Non cognitive equilibirum
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Two ways schemes develop
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Organization
Adaptation
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Organization
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Combing simple schemes into new, complex schemes
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Adaptation
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Adjusting to demands of environment
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Two ways adaptation occurs
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Assimilation- interpret new experiences using existing patterns of thought
Accommodation- modify existing patterns of thought to fit new experiences
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Piaget's stages of cognitive development
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Divided development into four stages
Stages are invariant
Progress through stages due to interaction between biological maturation and experience
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Sensorimotor
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Birth-->2 yrs
Babies learn through their sensory abilities and movement
Learn to coordinate senses with movement to learn about selves, environment
6 sub-stages
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Substages of sensorimotor
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1. Simple reflexes (birth-1mo)
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4mo)
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8mo)
4. Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12mo)
5. Tertiary Circular reactions (12-18mo)
6. Symbolic Problem Solving aka beginning of thoughts (18mo-2yrs)
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Simple Reflexes
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First schemes- innate reflexes
Use assimilation to apply reflexive schemes to new objects in environment
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Primary Circular Reactions
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Discover enjoyable things on accident and then try to repeat
More interested in own bodies than toys
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Secondary Circular Reactions
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Main difference- focused on outside world instead of own body
Vocalization tends to increase
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Coordination of secondary schemes
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Goal directed behavior: several schemes combined, coordinated to solve problem
Putting steps together, doing things on purpose. Instead of finding things out on accident
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Tertiary Circular Reactions
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Begin to experiment actively with things in the environment
Actions still “circular”
Doings same things with variation
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Symbolic Problem Solving
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Develop ability to create mental representations- internal images of a past event, object
Can solve simple problems without using “trial and error” approach
Develop deferred imitation- ability to imitate someone who is no longer present
Can engage in pretend play
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Strengths of Piaget's Theory (4)
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Father of “cognitive development”
Stimulated research
Emphasized that infants were active in their cognitive development- idea supported by research
Basic outline of cognitive development correct, even if some specifics questioned
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Weaknesses in Piaget's Theory (4)
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Underestimated children’s abilities
Failed to distinguish between competence and performance
Claimed broad stages exists- cognitive development more continuous than that
Limited attention to social/cultural influences
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Object Permanence
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Understanding objects, people still exist when you can’t see them
Infants under 4 months will not reach for toy that has been covered
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Object permanance in 4-5 mo infants
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Reach for partially covered toys, not completely covered toys
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Object permanence in 8-12 mo
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will look for object but will have A not B error
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A not B error
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Looking for an object where last seen, not in new place
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Object Permanence in 12-18 mo
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Looking for object where they see it hidden but do not understand invisible displacement (i.e. taking an object and hiding it in your hand and then hiding your hand, baby will look where your hand is but will not look in your hand for the object)
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Object permanence in 18 mo
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look for object where hidden without trouble
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Language
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Communication system of sounds, letters, and gestures
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Phonology
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Sound system of language
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Phonemes
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Smallest unit of sound
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Morphology
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Rules for formation of words from sounds
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Morphemes
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Smallest meaningful unites of language, bounded and unbounded morphemes
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Semantics
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Meanings of language, understanding what each word means
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Pragmatics
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Rules of specifying appropriate use of language
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Non-verbal communication skills
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Using appropriate gestures, facial expressions, intonation to help convey meaning
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Intonation
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Variation in loudness, pitch, timing
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When can babies distinguish phonemes of all languages?
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By 1 mo old but they also lose this ability by 10-12 mo
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Cooing (6-8 weeks)
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Repeating vowel like sounds "aahhhaaahhaa"
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Babbling (4-5 mo- 1yr)
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Repeating consonant-vowel combination "bababa"
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What do all children sounding the same suggest?
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Suggests babbling is due to biological maturation not environmental experience
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Declarative gestures
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Pointing at things
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Imperative Gestures
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ORdering someone to do something
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What does comprehension precedes production indicate
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That infants can understand more than they can say
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Prelinguistic Stage
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... |
Holophrase Period
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Begins around 10-14 mo, use holophrases (single words that convey many things)
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Naming/Language Explosion
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16-24 mo, vocabulary spurt when vocabulary expands rapidly
By 2 yr, can produce ~ 300-400 words
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Underextension
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Use word too narrowly (i.e. Only pet Fifi is "dog")
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Overexntension
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Use word too broadly
(ie all four legged animals are dog)
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Telegraphic Period
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18-24 mo, combine 2-3 words into simple sentences
Contain only important words, leave out words that aren’t critical to meaning
Use some grammatical rules
Continue to use intonation and gestures
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Pure Nurture
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The Behavioral Approach
language is learned through reinforcements, punishments, modeling, and imitation
Skinner- learning occurs through operant conditioning, language abilities slowly shaped
Bandura- learn through observation, imitation
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Support for pure nurture
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Children learn language spoken to and around them and pick up accents
Children learn names of things quicker if rewarded by getting object they name
Children whose parents speak to them more often, encourage them to talk are more advanced in language development
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Problems with pure nurture
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Can’t explain why kids learn rules of grammar
Parents do not consistently reinforce kids for speaking correctly
Children create novel communication
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Pure Nature
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Humans are biologically programmed to learn language
Chomsky- Language acquisition device (LAD)- proposed neural system that was hypothesized to allow understanding/production of language
Allows children to infer rules of speech from just hearing speech and then use rules to produce novel speech
Contains universal grammar- basic rules that characterize all human language
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Support for pure nature
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Similar stages of development across all cultures
Left hemisphere of brain is specialized for language and activated by speech right after speech
Sensitive period hypothesis- sensitive period for language development before puberty
Brains before puberty specially prepared to learn language?
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Problems with pure nature
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Not an explanation, more of a description
Mere exposure not enough
Is it unique to humans?
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Interactionist Perspective
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Both nature and nurture
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Temperament
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A person's characteristics mode of responding to events, includes behaviors and emotions. "Building blocks of personality"
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Dimensions of Temperament (6)
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Positive affect/sociability
Fearful distress
Irritable distress
activity level
Attention span
Rhythmicity
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3 categories of temperament
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Easy temperament (40%)
Difficult temperament (10%)
Slow to Warm up Temperament (15%)
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Easy Temperament (5)
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o high positive affect
o adaptable to new experiences
o easy to soothe
o rhythmic
o low distress
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Difficult Temperament (5)
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o low positive affect
o high irritable distress
o very active
o irregular eating and sleeping habits
o hard to soothe
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Timid, Shy Temperament
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o high levels of fearful distress
o low activity level
**remaining infants share qualities of two or more categories
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Stability of Temperament
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Longitudinal research indicates that activity level, irritability, sociability, and fearfulness stay relatively stable over lifespan
o more extreme traits more likely to persist
o more stable after age 3
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Causes of Temperament (2)
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o identical twins are more similar in temperament than fraternal twins
· environmental influences:
o goodness of fit: extent to which child’s temperament is compatible with demands and expectations of environment
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Stage Theory
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Erik Erikson, explained how we develop our understanding of ourselves and other people
Each stage a crisis that a person must deal with
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Basic trust vs mistrust
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(0-1 yr) Appreciation of interdependence and relatedness
Interactions with caregivers teach either a sense of trust or mistrust in other people, the world, themselves
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Autonomy vs Shame
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(1-3 yr) acceptance of the cycle of life, from integration to disintegration
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Initiative vs guilt
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(3-6 yr) Humor; empathy; resilience
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Industry vs Inferiority
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6-12 yr, Humility; acceptance of the course of one's life and unfulfilled hopes
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Identity vs Confusion
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12-19 yr, Sense of complexity of life, merging of sensory, logical and aesthetic perception
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Early Adulthood
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20-25 yr, Sense of the complexity of relationships; value of tenderness and loving freely
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Generativity vs Stagnation
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26-64 yr, Caring for others, and agape, empathy and concern
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Integrity vs Despair
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65 yr- death, Existential identity; a sense of integrity strong enough to withstand physical disintegration
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Attachment
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Emotional tie that binds us to special people with whom we seem proximity and security
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Attachments are reciprocal
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Formed from interaction between caregiver and child
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Reciprocal Socialization
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PRocess in which infants' behaviors invite further resposnes from caregivers which in turn bring about further responses from the infants
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Four Phases of Development of Infants' attachment to their caregivers
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Asocial Phase (birth-6 weeks)
Responsive to anything, social or not
Phase of Indiscriminate Attachments- (6 weeks to 6-7 months)
At beginning, prefer social stimuli but aren’t picky
By 3-6 months- some preferences for familiar people, still happy to interact with strangers
Specific Attachments Phase: (6-7 months to 9 months)
Form first attachment
Attachment facilitates exploration- caregiver becomes “secure base”
Phase of Multiple Attachments (9-18 months)
Within weeks form other attachments
Choose different attachment figures for different needs
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Attachment Related Fears
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Stranger anxiety
Separation anxiety
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Stranger Anxiety
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Fear when approached by unfamiliar individual
Begins with first attachment, peaks between 8-10 months, gradually declines over 2nd year
Strangers less scary if
Attachment figure close by, responds positively
Situation is familiar
Stranger is sensitive to child’s cues, isn’t “weird looking”
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Separation Anxiety
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Fear when separated from attachment figure
starts at 6-8 mo, peaks @14-18 months, fades throughout preschool
grade school kids and teens may have some depression/anxiety when separated for long periods
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"Strange Situation"
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Method used to asses strength and quality of attachment
Involves child, parent, and stranger interacting in different combinations (Ainsworth)
Does child use caregiver as secure base?
How does child relate to stranger?
How does child handle brief separations from parent?
How easily is child soothed when parent returns?
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Secure attachment (65% of US 1 yr olds)
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Use parent as secure base
Warms up to stranger with parent present
Upset when parents leave
When parent returns: maintain contact until comforted, then return to exploration
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Resistant (ambivalent) attachment (10% of US 1 yr olds)
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Parent not used as effectively as secure base
May be scared of stranger even with parent present
Very distressed when parent leaves
When parent returns: very difficult to sooth
May be ambivalent- stay close but resist comfort
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Avoidant Attachment (20% of US 1 yr Olds)
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May avoid contact, interaction with parent
May be friendly with stranger, may ignore
Not as many signs of outward distress when parent leaves
When parent returns do not seek out comfort from parent
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Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment (5% of US 1 yr olds)
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Most insecure, stressed out by situation
Combination of anxious, avoidant tendencies
Show confusion about approaching or avoiding parent
Combination of anxious, avoidant tendencies
Show confusion about approaching or avoiding parent
Sometimes distressed when parent leaves, sometimes not
When parent returns
May avoid or resist parent
May act confused, frightened, dazed
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Caregiving hypothesis
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Type of attachment baby forms is determined by type of caregiving provided
Securely attached babies- parents are sensitive, synchronous, emotionally supportive, stimulating
Babies with resistant style- inconsistent parents
Baby tries to get comfort through neediness, becomes angry when nothing works
Babies with avoidant style
Parents either
Impatient, unresponsive, negative OR
Provide too much stimulation, not responsive to baby’s cues
Infant learns to avoid adults, do without emotional support
Babies with disorganized disoriented style- parents likely neglectful or abusive
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Temperament Hypothesis
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Strange situation is really measuring differences in infant temperament not attachment styles
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Attachment Stability
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Research is mixed
Middle/Upper class more likely to stay secure over time
Changes usually go from insecure to secure, especially with social support and psychologically adjusted mothers
Lower SES, low levels of support, high levels of stress more likely to move from secure to insecure
Maltreatment, maternal depression, poor family functioning in adolescence= more likely to move from secure to insecure
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Baby Growth
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Add ~2-3 in, 5 lbs each year
Boys taller, heavier, more muscular
Begin to lose “baby fat”, gain adult proportions- this improves balance
Size affected by nutrition, health care, genetics
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Brain Development
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Brain increases from 70-90% of adult weight
Rapid development of frontal lobes, corpus callosum
Brain becomes more lateralized, but two hemispheres work together on most tasks
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Gross motor skills
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Partly due to maturation of brain, body & partly due to practice
High activity levels (Highest at age 3)
Boys slightly more active than girls
Boys better at skills involving power, strength
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Fine motor skills
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Girls better at these skills and those requiring balance
Gradually become adept at dressing, feed themselves
Potty training takes place
Age of potty training increasing in US
AAP advocates flexible approach when child shows signs of being ready
Artistic skills gradually develop
Scribbling (18-24 mo)
1st representational forms (2-3 yr)
Make shapes, gradually learn to plan ahead
PIctorial stage (4-5 yr)
Drawing becomes more “realistic”, recognizable
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