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PSYC 101: EXAM 4
Programmed Aging
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When specific genes “switch off” before age-related losses
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Thinking
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Manipulation of mental representations of information.
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Mental Image
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Representation in the mind of an object or event.
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Concept |
Categorization of objects, events, or people that share common properties
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Prototypes
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Typical, highly representative examples of a concept.
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What types of mental processes are studied in cognitive psychology?
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Attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking.
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Algorithm
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A rule that if used correctly, guarantees a solution to a problem.
Pythagorean Thereom
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Heuristic
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A cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution. Used if running low on time; estimating.
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Availability heuristic
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Involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory. Events that are easier to remember happened more and will happen more.
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Representativeness Heuristic
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Base predictions on similarity to other events or situations.
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Familiarity Heuristic
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More familiar items are more quickly accepted as correct than unfamiliar items.
Ex: What to order at a restaurant
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Well-Defined problems
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Nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear
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Ill-Defined Problems
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Nature of the problem and information required to solve the problem may be unclear.
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Means-End Analysis
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Repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists
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Insight
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Sudden awareness (Aha!)
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Functional Fixedness
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The tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use
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Mental set
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The tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist
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Confirmation Bias
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The tendency to seek out information that supports one's initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory information
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Creativity
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The ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways
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Divergent thinking
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Thinking that generates unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions
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Convergent Thinking
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Thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic
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Ways to be more creative thinkers:
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Redefine problems
Use subgoals
Adopt a critical perspective
Consider the opposite
Use analogies
Think divergently
Use heuristics
Experiment with different solutions
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Emotions
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Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior
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James-Lange theory of emotion
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The belief that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation
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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
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The belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus
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Basic emotions:
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Happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise anddisgust
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Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
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The belief that emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues
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Amygdala
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Important in the experience of emotions
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Hippocamus
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Plays an important role in the consolidation of memories
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facial affect program
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activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate expression
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facial feedback hypothesis
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hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions
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Developmental Psychology
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Study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life
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Nature/Nurture Issue
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The issue of the degree to which heredity and environment influence behavior.
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Gestation period for humans
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40 weeks (+ or - 2 weeks)
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Zygote (germinal period)
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Rapid cell division begins and the zygote becomes a mass of multiplying cells that migrate
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Embryo Period
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2-8 weeks of gestation
Vital organs and bodily systems begin to form
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Fetus Period
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Week 8 until birth
Bone cells appear
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Age of viability
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Point at which baby can survive if born prematurely
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Phenylketonuria
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Can't break down amino acid phenylalaine
Leads to intellectual disabilities, seizures
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Sickle-cell anemia
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Sickle-shaped red blood cells due to abnormal hemoglobin
Leads to organ damage, pain (inadequate oxygen)
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Tay-Sachs Disease
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Destroys nerve cells
Leads to disabilities, seizures, weak muscles
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Down Syndrome
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47 chromosomes
Disabilities, delays, health problems
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Reflexes
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Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
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Causes neonates to turn their heads toward things that touch their cheeks
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Sucking Reflex
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Prompts infants to suck at things that touch their lips
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Gag reflex
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To clear the throat
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Startle (Moro) Reflex
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Baby flings out arms, fans fingers, and arches back in response to a sudden noise
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Babinski Reflex
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Toes fan out when sole of foot is stroked
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Attachment
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The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
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Harlow's study on attachment
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Wire monkey vs cloth monkey. Contact and comfort is more important than food
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Secure Behavior
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Child plays freely when mother is near. Distressed when mother leaves and joyful when she returns.
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Avoidant Behavior
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Do not cry when mother leaves. Seem to avoid her when she returns.
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Ambivalent Behavior
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Hovers around the mother. Angry when mother returns and demands immediate contact.
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Disorganized-disoriented Behavior
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Inconsistent and erratic. Seems overwhelmed by stress. Shows confused, contradictory behaviors.
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Authoritarian Parenting Style
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Over-controlling. Imposing rules and expecting unquestioning obedience. Children fare poorly.
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Permissive Parenting Style
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Parents value self-expression. Girls fare ok but boys need rules
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Authoritative Parenting Style
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Value child's individuality as well as restraint. Best for children
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Uninvolved
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Clear negative effects on children
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Temperament
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A biological predisposition of reactivity. Very stable. Easy, slow, difficult
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Resiliency
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Ability to overcome high-risk situations
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Sensorimotor
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Birth - 2 years
Object permanence
-Imitation
-Facial expressions
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Preoperational |
2 - 7 years
Egocentric thought
-Symbols
-Principle of conservation not yet developed
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Concrete operational
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7 - 12 years
Development of conservation
-Classifying objects
-Not abstract thinking
Mastery of reversibility
-Can take another person's perspective
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Formal operational
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12 years and older
-Abstract concepts
-Logic
-Reversibility
-Hypothetical thinking
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Zone of Proximal Development
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Level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own
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Adolescence
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Development stage between childhood and adulthood
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Period of storm and stress
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Adolescence is not a period fraught with stress but does have some stress
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Adolescent egocentrism
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State of self-absorption and distorted view of one's uniqueness and importance
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Personal fables
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Belief that one's experience is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else
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Life expectancy
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Average number of years a person will live due to certain life circumstances
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Middle Age
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40 - 65
Minor physical decline
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Genetic preprogramming
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Theories of aging suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction
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Wear and tear
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Suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply work less efficiently as people age
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Fluid Abilities
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Involved information-processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy solving
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Crystallized Abilities
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Intelligence based on the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience
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