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Primary appraisal
Quick assessment of the meaning of a given environmental event for the individual.
Neuroendocrine system
The hormonal systems involved in emotions and stress
Catecholamines
Hormones that control ANS activation Catecholamines are sympathomimetic "fight-or-flight" hormones that are released by the adrenal glands in response to stress.
Secondary appraisal
Self-assessment of the resources available to cope with stress
Glucocorticoids
Hormones responsible for maintaing the activation of psychological systems during emergencies
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter that activates the sympathetic response to stress, increasing heart rate, rate of respiration, and blood pressure in support of rapid action.
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
A major neuro-endocrine pathway relevant to the stress response involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the adrenal cortex.
Adrenal-medullary system
A major neuro-endocrine pathway stimulated during stress in which the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system.
Cortisol
The stress hormone; it is produced by the body to mobilize the body's energy resources during stressful situations.
Alarm stage
The phase of the general adaptation syndrome in which all of the body's resources respond to a perceived threat.
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
As defined by Hans Selye, a generalized, nonspecific set of changes in the body that occur during extreme stress
Resistance stage
In the general adaptation syndrome, extended effort by the body to deal with a threat
Exhaustion stage
The phase of the general adaptation syndrome when all resources for fighting the threat have been depleted and illness is more likely.
Allostasis
Allostasis is the process of achieving stability, or homeostasis, through physiological or behavioral change.
Coping
Act of dealing with stress or emotions
Problem-focused coping
Way of dealing with stress that aims to change the situation that is creating stress.
Emotion-focused coping
Way of dealing with stress that aims to regulate the experience of distress.
Emotional disclosure
Way of coping with stress through writing or talking about the situation
psychosomatic theory
the idea that emotional factors can lead to the occurrence or worsening of illness
physiological reactivity model
explanation for the causal role of stress-related bodily changes in illness
health behavior approach
explanation for illness or health that focusses on the role of behaviors such as diet, exercise, and substance abuse.
cardiovascular system
the heart, blood, and all the blood vessels.
psychoneuro-immunology (PNI)
the science of how psychological factors relate to changes in the immune system
antigen
any foreign substance that triggers an immune response
natural immunity
form of immunity that is the first response to antigens
acquired immunity
immunity provided by antibodies or cells produced in the body in response to specific antigens
cellular immunity
the immune response that occurs when the T lymphocytes (T cells) fight antigens
Type A behavior pattern
a way of responding to challenge or stress, characterized by hostility, impatience, competitiveness, and time urgency
cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) model
hypothesis that hostility can increase the likelihood of heart disease through at least two different pathways
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which people cannot maintain 85% of their ideal body weight for their height, have an intense fear of eating, and have a distorted body image
bulimia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent binge eating, followed by compensatory behaviors.
anima
according to Jung, the female part of the male personality
animus
according to Jung, the male part of the female personality
archetypes
ancient or archaic images that result from common ancestral experiences
basic tendencies
the essence of personality: the Big Five personality dimensions plus talents, aptitudes, and cognitive abilities
behavioral thresholds
the point at which a person moves from not having a particular response to having one
Big Five or Five-factor model
a theory of personality, that includes five dimensions: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (O.C.E.A.N.)
collective unconscious
according to Jung, the shared experiences of our ancestors that have been passed down from generation to generation.
cortical arousal
level of activation in the brain
defense mechanisms
unconscious strategies the mind uses to protect itself from anxiety by denying and distorting reality in some way
ego
Freud's term for the sense of self; the part of the mind that operates on the "reality principle"
empirical method
Empirical method is generally taken to mean the collection of data on which to base a theory or derive a conclusion in science.
fixation
a defense mechanism whereby a person continues to be concerned and even preoccupied with earlier stages of development
id
Freud's term for the seat of impulse and desire; the pleasure-seeking part of our personality
inferiority complex
an unhealthy need to dominate or upstage others as a way of compensating for feelings of deficiency
inter-rater reliability
measure of how much agreement there is in ratings when using two or more raters or coders to rate personality or other behaviors
personal unconscious
according to Jung, all our repressed and hidden thoughts, feelings, and motives
projection
a defense mechanism in which people deny particular ideas, feelings, or impulses and project them onto others
projective tests
In psychology, a projective test is a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts.
psychosexual stage theory
Freud's stages of personality development; in different stages a different region of the body is most erogenous
quantitative trait loci (QTL) approach
a technique in behavioral genetics that looks for the location on genes that might be associated with particular behaviors
rational (face valid) Method
a method for developing questionnaire items that involves using reason or theory to come up with a question
reaction formation
a defense mechanism that turns an unpleasant idea, feeling, or impulse into its opposite
repression
defense mechanism for keeping unpleasant thoughts, feelings, or impulses out of consciousness
rorschach inkblot test
The Rorschach test (; also known as the Rorschach inkblot test or simply the Inkblot test) is a psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex scientifically derived algorithms, or both.
striving for superiority
according to Adler, the major drive behind all behavior, whereby humans naturally strive to overcome their physical and psychological deficiencies
sublimation
a defense mechanism in which a socially unacceptable impulse is expressed in a socially acceptable way
superego
Freud's term for the part of the mind that monitors behavior and evaluates it in terms of right and wrong; the conscience
thematic apperception test (TAT)
a projective test in which the participant is presented with a series of picture cards and asked to tell a story about what is going on in the scene
trait
a disposition to behave consistently in a particular way
unconditional positive regard
Acceptance of another person regardless of his or her behavior
Unconscious
The level of consciousness containing all drives, urges, and instincts that are outside awareness but nonetheless motivate most behavior
Aggression
Violent behavior that is intended to cause psychological or physical harm, or both, to another being.
altruism
Altruism (pronounced: ) is selfless concern for the welfare of others.
attitude
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for an item.
attributions
inferences made about the causes of other people's behavior
bystander effect
The bystander effect is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases where individuals do not offer help in an emergency situation when other people are present.
cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously.
conformity
Conformity is the process by which an individual's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are influenced by other people.
cult
an extremist group led by a charismatic, totalitarian leader who uses coercive methods to prevent members from leaving the group
discrimination
a sociological term referring to the treatment taken toward or against a person of a certain group in consideration based solely on class or category.
empathy
Empathy, which literally translates as in feeling, is the capability to share another being's emotions and feelings.
empathy-altruism hypothesis
the idea that people help others selflessly only when they feel empathy for them
fundamental attribution error
the tendency to explain other's behavior in dispositional rather than situational terms
groupthink
situation in which the thinking of the group takes over, so much so that group members forgo logic or critical analysis in the service of reaching a decision.
informational social influence
conformity to the behavior of others b/c one views them as a source of knowledge about what one is supposed to do
in-group/out-group bias
tendency to show positive feelings toward people who belong to the same group as we do, and negative feelings toward those in other groups
kin selection
the evolutionary favoring of genes that prompts individuals to help their relatives or kin
normative social influence
conformity to the behavior of others in order to be accepted by them
obedience
a type of conformity in which a person yields to the will of another person
out-group homogeneity
the tendency to see all members of an out-group as the same
persuasion
the act of attempting to change the opinions, beliefs, or choices of others by explanation or argument
prejudice
a biased attitude toward a group of people or an individual member of a group based on unfair generalizations about what members of that group are like
prosocial behavior
action that is beneficial to others
reciprocal altruism
the act of helping others in the hope that they will help us in the future
self-serving bias
the tendency to make situational attributions for our failures but dispositional attributions for our successes
sexual strategies theory
the idea that men and women face different problems when they seek out mates, and so they often approach relationships in very different ways
social exchange theory
the idea that we help others when we understand that the benefits to ourselves are likely to outweigh the costs
social facilitation
Phenomenon in which the presence of others improves one's performance
social loafing
Phenomenon in which the presence of others causes on to relax one's standards and slack off
social norms
rules about acceptable behavior imposed by the cultural context in which one lives.
social psychology
Social psychology is the study of the relations between people and groups.
stereotypes
A stereotype is a commonly held public belief about specific social groups, or types of individuals.
triangular theory of love
Robert Sternberg's idea that three components (intimacy, passion, and commitment) in various combinations, can explain all the forms of human love
agoraphobia
an anxiety disorder involving intense fear of being in places from which escape might be difficult or in which help might not be available should a panic attack occur
antisocial personality disorder
dramatic-emotional personality disorder characterized by extremely impulsive, deceptive, violent, ruthless, and callous behaviors; a serious and potentially dangerous disorder
Asperger's syndrome
Asperger syndrome is an autism spectrum disorder, and people with it therefore show significant difficulties in social interaction, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests.
ADHD
childhood disorder characterized by inability to focus attention for more than a few minutes, to remain still and quiet, to do careful work
autism
Autism is a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior.
avoidant personality disorder
anxious-fearful personality disorder characterized by extreme fear of being criticized, low self-esteem, and avoidance of social interaction
axis I disorders
in the DSM-IV-TR, the major clinical syndromes that cause significant impairment
axis II disorders
in DSM-IV-TR, the more long-standing personality disorders as well as mental retardation
bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder or manic-depressive disorder (also referred to as bipolar affective disorder or manic depression) is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated energy levels, cognition, and mo…
borderline personality disorder
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a personality disorder defined in DSM-IV and described as a prolonged disturbance of personality function in a person (generally over the age of eighteen years, although it is also found in adolescents), characterized by depth and variability of mo…
catatonic schizophrenia
subtype of schizophrenia characterized by two of the following symptoms: extreme immobility, excessive activity, peculiar posturing, mutism, or parroting what other people say
cognitive symptoms
problems with working memory, attention, verbal and visual learning and memory, reasoning and problem solving, processing, and speech
comorbidity
coexistence of two or more disorders
compulsion
a repetitive behavior performed in response to uncontrollable urges or according to a ritualistic set of rules
delusion
in people with schizophrenia, a false belief or exaggeration held despite evidence to the contrary
dependent personality disorder
anxious-fearful personality disorder characterized by fear of being rejected and having a strong need to be cared for
diathesis-stress model
explanation for the origin of psychological disorders as a combination of biological predispositions plus stress or an abusive environment
disorganized schizophrenia
a subtype of schizophrenia characterized by disorganized speech and behavior and flat or inappropriate affect
dissociative disorders
psychological disorders characterized by extreme spilts or gaps in memory, identity, or consciousness
dissociative identity disorder (DID)
dissociative disorder in which a person develops at least two distinct personalities, each with its own memories, thoughts, behaviors, and emotions
dysthymia
form of depression that is milder in intensity than major depressive disorder
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
state of pervasive and excessive anxiety lasting at least six months
hallucinations
A hallucination, in the broadest sense, is a perception in the absence of a stimulus.
histrionic personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder (HPD) is defined by the American Psychiatric Association as a personality disorder characterized by a pattern of excessive emotionality and attention-seeking, including an excessive need for approval and inappropriate seductiveness, usually beginning in ear…
impulse control disorder
an anxiety disorder related to obsessive-compulsive disorder in which a person feels an intense, repetitive desire to perform certain behaviors
major depressive disorder
mood disorder characterized by pervasive low mood, lack of motivation, low energy, and feelings of worthlessness and guilt that last for at least two consecutive weeks
manic episodes
one mood cycle in bipolar disorder, typically involving increased energy, sleeplessness, euphoria, irritability, delusions of grandeur, increased sex drive, and "racing" thoughts
mood disorders
category of psychological disorder characterized by severe disturbances in emotional behavior
narcissistic personality disorder
dramatic-emotional personality disorder characterized by having an extremely positive and arrogant self-image and being extraordinarily self-centered
negative symptoms
symptoms that include non-responsiveness, emotional flatness, immobility, catatonia, problems with speech, and the inability to complete tasks
obsession
an unwanted thought, word, phrase, or image that persistently and repeatedly comes into a person's mind and causes distress
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
an anxiety disorder in which compulsive thoughts lead to obsessive behaviors
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
anxious-fearful personality disorder characterized by rigid habits and extreme perfectionism; more general than OCD
panic attack
sudden, short period of extreme anxiety involving physiological and psychological symptoms and intense fear
panic disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by panic attacks and persistent anxiety about having more attacks
paranoid personality disorder
odd-eccentric personality disorder characterized by extreme suspicions and mistrust of others in unwarranted and maladaptive ways
paranoid schizophrenia
subtype of schizophrenia characterized by preoccupation with delusions and auditory hallucinations
personality disorders
maladaptive and inflexible patterns of cognition, emotion, and behavior that develop in late childhood or adolescence
phobia
an anxiety disorder marked by ongoing and irrational fear of a particular object, situation, or activity
positive symptoms
the perceptual experiences associated with schizophrenia, including hallucinations, delusional thinking, and disorganized thought and speech
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
a type of anxiety disorder triggered by exposure to a catastrophic or horrifying event that poses serious harm or threat
psychotic disorders
psychological disorders of thought and perception, characterized by inability to distinguish between real and imagined perceptions
schizoid personality disorder
odd-eccentric personality disorder characterized by a desire to avoid close relationships as well as by emotional aloofness, reclusively, and a lack of humor
schizophrenia
a mental disorder characterized by abnormalities in the perception or expression of reality.
schizotypal personality disorder
odd-eccentric personality disorder characterized by a desire to live an isolated and asocial life, but also by the presence of odd thoughts and beliefs
social phobia
fear of humiliation in the presence of others, characterized by intense self-consciousness about appearance or behavior or both
undifferentiated schizophrenia
subtype of schizophrenia characterized by the general symptoms of delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech
word salad
term for the people with schizophrenia, which may follow grammatical rules but be nonsensical in terms of content
atypical antipsychotics
newer antipsychotic drugs, which do not create tardive dyskinesia
barbiturates
a class of anxiety-reducing sedatives that can be addictive and carry a risk of overdose
behavior therapies
therapies that apply the principle of classical and operant conditioning in the treatment of psychological disorders
benzodiazepines
a class of anxiety reducing drugs that can be addictive, but are less dangerous than barbiturates
bupropione
a widely used antidepressant that inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine
catharsis
the process of releasing intense, often unconscious, emotions in a therapeutic setting
client-centered therapy
a form of humanistic therapy in which the therapist shows unconditional positive regard for the patient
cognitive therapy
any type of psychotherapy that works to restructure irrational thought patterns
cognitive-behavioral therapy
an approach to treating psychological disorders that combines techniques for restructuring irrational thoughts with operant and classical conditioning techniques to shape desirable behaviors
defense mechanisms
ways in which the mind protects itself from anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
dialectical behavior therapy
treatment that integrates elements of CBT with exercises aimed at developing mindfulness without meditation and is used to treat borderline personality disorder
electroconclusive therapy
treatment of last resort for severe depression that involves passing an electrical current through a persons brain in order to induce a seizure
evidence-based therapies
treatment choices based on empirical evidence that they produce the desired outcome
flooding
an extreme form of in vivo exposure in which the client experiences extreme exposure to the phobic object
free association
a psychotherapeutic technique in which the client takes one image or idea from a dream and says whatever comes to mind, regardless of how threatening, disgusting, or troubling it may be
integrative therapy
an eclectic approach in which the therapist draws on different treatment approaches and uses those that seem most appropriate for the situation
lithium
a salt that is prescribed for its ability to stabilize the mania associated with bipolar disorder
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT)
an approach that combines elements of CBT with mindfulness meditation to help people with depression learn to recognize and restructure negative thought patterns
monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors
class of drugs used to treat depression; they slow the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain
phenothiazines
drugs used to treat schizophrenia; help diminish hallucinations, confusion, agitation, and paranoia but also have adverse side effects
prefrontal lobotomy
a form of psychosurgery in which the connections between the prefrontal cortex and the lower portion of the brain are severed; no longer in use
psychodynamic psychotherapy
therapy aimed at uncovering unconscious motives that underlie psychological problems
psychotherapy
the use of psychological techniques to modify maladaptive behaviors or thought patterns, or both, and to help patients develop insight into their own behavior
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
treatment for severe depression involving exposure of specific brain structures to bursts of high-intensity magnetic fields instead of electricity
repression
the unconscious act of keeping threatening thoughts, feelings, or impulses out of consciousness
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI's)
drugs prescribed primarily for depression and some anxiety disorders that work by making more serotonin available in the synapse
systematic desensitization
Systematic desensitization is a type of behavioral therapy used in the field of psychology to help effectively overcome phobias and other anxiety disorders.
tardive dyskinesia
repetitive, involuntary movements of jaw, tongue, face, and mouth and body tremors resulting from the use of traditional antipsychotic drugs
token economies
a behavioral technique in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with a token, such as a small chip or fake coin, which can be exchanged for privileges
traditional antipsychotics
historically, the first medications used to manage psychotic symptoms
transference
process in psychotherapy in which the client reacts to a person in a present relationship as though that person were someone from the clients past
tricyclic antidepressants
drugs used for treating depression, as well as in chronic pain management and in the treatment of ADHD

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