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PSYC 4640:Final
Hormone
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Chemical that is secreted by an endocrine gland and is conveyed by the blood to other organs whose activities it influences
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Steroid Hormone
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Sex hormones
Androgens include Testosterone
Estrogens include estradiol
Both sexes have both, matter in amounts
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Organizing and activiting effects
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Organizing occur well before birth in humans and determines brain and body to develop make or female characteristics. Activating occurs later in life like puberty.
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Mullerian and Wolffian ducts
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males Y chromosome contain SRY gene
SRY gene cause primitive sex organs into testes & secret testosterone
test. cause Wolffian ducts into seminal vesicles & vas deferens
Also see MIH which causes degeneration of Mullerian ducts (females)
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Sexually dimorphic nucleus
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Hypothalamus area
larger in males
testosterone alone can change the brain in animals
enters the cell & converts into estrodial
protein called Alpha-Fetoprotein prevents estradiol from entering the cell (keeps females, females)
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Gender Identity
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related to gender role which is a behavior we expect from a particular sex & defined by culture & environment
most individs require gender identity that match their external appearance
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Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
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Born w/ abnormalities
XY, Y has mutated SRY gene
in females, CAH, the end result is excessive amounts of testosterone is secreted & leads to male external genitalia
any individ w/ between male & female is called Intersex
1 out of 2000 have this
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Androgen insensitivity
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some XY individs are insensitive to all androgens including testosterone
outwardly have female appearances
puberty, see breasts but no menstruation b/c they have internal testes
most have female gender identity
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Anterior Commisure
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larger in hetero females & homosexual males than in hetero males
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SCN
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in homo males & hetero females is shaped differently than hetero males
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Interstitial Nucleus 3
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is smaller in gay males & hetero females than hetero males
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Emotion
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Emotional arousal is concerned, Limbic system is critical
some cortical areas in frontal and temporal that are also important for experiencing emotions
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Insular Cortex
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only place where disgust is localized
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Amygdala
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Allows us to read other people's emotions
temporal lobe epilepsy will exhibit intermittant explosive disorder
have sezuire & try to kill someone
Amygdala priming aggression
if someone makes you mad, more likely to get even more angry 20 mins later
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Testosterone and Aggression
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weak correlation b/w these
men fight more, arrested more
behaviors are worse b/w ages 15-25 when testosterone levels are at highest
females can be just as aggressive when protecting offspring
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Serotonin (5 HT)
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low 5HT turnover has been correlated w/ violent crime & suicide
suicide rates highest in spring when serotonin levels are low
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Serotonin
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Neurons synthesize 5HT from tryptophan. Tryp. needs to cross over BBB & shares transportation w/ Phenylalanine. If you eat a lot of something w/ Pheny. should bascially more aggressive. Enzyme that converts tryp. into 5HT called T. Hydroxylase.
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Urbach-Wiethe
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Rare genetic d/o
amygdala wastes away
people have difficulty recognizing emotion in others, esp. fear
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NT in Amygdala
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CCK & GABA
CCK is excititory
GABA is inhibitory
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Anxiolytic
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Drugs that block anxiety
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Barbiturates
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In 1950s, these were used but were strongly habit forming & easily overdosed
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Benzodiazephines
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minor tranquilizers
prescribed in minor pathology
sedative, hypnotic drugs
alcohol is also a sedative & works the same in amygdala
work on GABA
allows GABA to bind more effectively
4 binding sites (GABA on 1 & benzo's on other 3)
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Allosteric Modulators
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Benzo's are called this
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Endozipenes
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Endogenous
bind to benzo receptors
Ex: DBI
glial cells produce endoz not neurons
have opposite effect than benzo's
makes us more anxious
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SAM Response (1 of 2 parts of flight or fight response)
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2 components
neural response
neuroendo
When something scares you, immediate recognition in brain, info sent to spinal cord, raises BP, raises HR, sweat (sympathetic arousal)
end result, 2 NT EPI & NE released on all internal organs
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SAM response contin.
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After neural response begins, neuroendological kicks in
this result in more EPI & NE being released hormonally from adrenals
end result, prolongs sympathetic response
Prepares body to fight or run
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Polygraph Test
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Measures sympathetic arousal
theses tests don't work
if you're nervous, you must be lying (not true)
if you're lying, you must be nervous (not true)
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Voo Doo Death
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in order for a curse to kill you, you have to believe you are going to die
one theory, involves SAM response
everyone is so terrified & incredibly aroused
so hyperaroused, the parasympathetic response comes in to slow down so much it stops heart
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HPA Axis (2nd part of fight or fligh)
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Kicks in after SAM
end result is cortisol & endorphins
in a short run, it mobilizes glucose, supplies nrg
endorphins are bodies natural pain killers
over time, cortisol switches to immune suppressing
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Tend & Befriend
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When stressed, females want to be with other people, opposite with males. Initial stress response is the same in both but in females, hormone coming in & change response
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Immune system
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PNI
role of sys. is to differentiate b/w self from non-self
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Non-self
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Could be a virus, bacteria, someone else's kidney, etc
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Anitgen
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anything foreign
will cause an immune response
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Specificity
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Some immune responses are specific
bit by a dog w/ rabies
immune sys will produce antibodies for rabies
then scrape against rusty nail
antibodies for rabies won't help at all
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Memory
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1st time you are exposed to a virus, going to make antibodies
takes 7-8 days to overcome
if re-exposed to same virus, next response will be faster and stronger
how vaccines work
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T Cells
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helping other cells produce antibodies
help checking own cells for cancer or other viruses
HIV wipes out T Cells
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B Cells
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Eventually produce antibodies
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Neutrophils
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attack anything foreign & kill it
when they kill something, they are killed in process
type of WBC
what pus is, dead neutrophils
usually on the skin
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Humoral Response
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antibody production
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Cell-Mediated Response
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Important for immune sys to check to make sure your own body doesn't have cancer or a virus
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PNI
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Intersection of stress & immune system
Entire field came from the work of psychologist doing work in taste adversion
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Robert Ader
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CS = sugar water
US = Cytoxan
interested in extinguishing taste adversion
after a while, animals in experimental grp were dying
found cytoxan is a chemotheraputic drug & suppresses immune sys
Sys is also remembering the immuno-suppressing drug
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Nick Cohen
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Ader explained this to Cohen & tested it for him and he was conditioning the immune sys
His idea was that the immune sys & brain where talking to each other
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Research has shown the neural innervation of immune tissue
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Body has several immune organs (spleen, lymph nodes)
see nerves/neurons going into immune organs
under microscope, see neurons synapsing on immune cells
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The NT that is released, the immune cell must have receptors
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see receptors for those NT & hormones
some of those receptors are for EPI, NE, Cortisol
These are consequence of the stress response
if corisol is continuously released when are you chronically stressed & see a suppressed immune sys
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Psychosocial events matter
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Ex: Animal Study
3 grps of rats
before study, rats injected w/ tumor cell line, 50 % would get cancer
1st grp was control
2nd grp placed in shock box, get shock, when press lever shock stopped
3rd was yoked w/ 2nd grp. couldn't control the shock
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Results of animal study
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1st grp 50 % got cancer
2nd grp 63% rejected the tumors; 37 % got cancer
3rd grp 73 % got cancer; 27% rejected cancer
Those in control benefit physiologically
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Engram
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Brain can physically change from learning. People trying to find it
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Law of Mass Action
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the more cortex, the better
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Law of Equipotentiality
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all parts of the cortex contribute equally to learning
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Short-term memory STM
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memories for events that have just occurred
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Long-term memory LTM
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memories for events from previous times
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Capacity
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STM is about 7 +/- 2 different things ( phone numbers)
LTM is infinite
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Need for rehearsal
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required for STM (repeat numbers over and over)
LTM not required to repeat to be stored
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Forgetting
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once you forgotten something in STM, it's gone. Not for LTM
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Working Memory
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temporary storage of memories while we are working with them or attending them
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Phonological Loop
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part of brain that stores any sounds/words involved in that memory
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Visuospatial Sketchpad
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stores any sight/written words that are associated w/ that memory
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Central Executive
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directs your brain to appropriate stimulus to be stored in working memory
not the same for everyone (visual learners, sound for learning)
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Implicit Memories
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Involved the influence of memory on a behavior w/o realizing your using a memory
ex: procedural memory (riding a bike, tie your shoe)
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Explicit Memories
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deliberate recall of info you know as memory
declarative memory is ability to state a memory
episodic memory: memory of personal experiences
semantic memory: textbook kinds of facts
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Retrieval
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something in LTM and recalling it
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Anterograde Amnesia
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loss of memories following some event (brain injury). can't form new memories
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Retrograde Amnesia
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forget things that happen before an event. can form new memories
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Delayed Matched Sample Task DMTS
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Animal shown a sample (light up triangle)
wait certain period of time
then give 2 choices (circle or triangle)
if chose correct, get fed, incorrect not fed
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Delayed-nonmatched sample
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same as DMTS
non-mathced; circle would be reinforced, triangle not
suppose to be good measures of working memory
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Morris Water Tank
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Spatial memory is key
put a platform under cloudy water
put animal in water to swim around to find platform
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Pre-frontal cortex
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important for working memory
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Hypocampus (HA)
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important for declarative memory
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Basal Ganglia
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important for procedural memories
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Korsakoff Syndrome
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brain damage caused by a thiamine or vitamin B deficiency
occurs in alcoholics
damage in several areas including prefrontal cortex
implicit better than explicit
retrograde & antrograde amnesia
Confabulation
ask question, make up answer & believe it
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Alzheimer's Disease
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severe memory loss
chromosome 21 carries disease
plaques is a build up of protein Amyloid Beta
Tangles are build up of protien TAU
ACh containing neurons are damaged by clumps
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Semantic Dementia
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Damage to particular areas of temporal cortex
these people lose memory of book kinds of facts
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Infant Amnesia
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dont know why
one theory deals with HA, immature at birth until about 2 years
another is a result of a lack of language
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Long Term Potentiation
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HANDOUT!!!!!
AMPA & NMDA receptors are important
Activation of NMDA receptors leads to changes in AMPA receptors
All changes of NMDA makes it more likely to stimulate AMPA
Once change happens, don't need NMDA
block LTP, block learning
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Contralateral Control
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left side of brain controls right side and vice versa
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Ipsilateral
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Control the same side, taste and smell
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Corpus Callosum
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The 2 hemispheres talk to each other thru corpus callosum
Anterior & HA commisures also help in communicating
Left side knows what right is doing in about 7 milliseconds
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Lateralization
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Division of labor
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Split Brained Patients
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Corpus Callosum cut b/c of severe epliletic seizures
most do well
2 hemispheres often do function independently, sometimes it's a problem
right hem. can take over some language
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Planum Temporale
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Contains areas important for language
larger in most people (larger in left than right)
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Bonogo
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female chimp who was a Bonogo
had 2 babies while being trained
kids did very well and formed orginal senses and would chat
they would explain the past
best example
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William's Syndrome
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Chromosome 7 abnormality
severe MR
trouble w/ hygiene, require a lot of care
ability to read faces is not effected
do great in language
articulate
expressive language
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Language Acquisition
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we are hard wired to have language
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Poverty of the Stimulus Argument
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Children produce grammar that they never heard before
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Broca's Aphasia
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Difficulty in language production/written
can't sign
telegraphic speech
can't read "too be or not to be"
can read "two bee oar knot two bee"
difficult w/ phonetics
better language comprehension then production
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Wernicke's Area
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they can prodice language but don't understand written or verbal communication of others. so they speak nonsense
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Anomia
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difficulty in recalling the names of objects
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Dyslexia
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difficulty in reading when visual & academic skills are adaquate
see auditory problems
dysphonetic: trouble sounding out words
dyseidetic: sound out parts of words but difficulty recognizing sounds as a whole word
no one knows the cause
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Inattentional Blindness
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not consciously aware of stuff going on around you
in visual field but not aware
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Affective Disorder
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Depression and mania
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Dysthymia
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less severe form
more chronic
less debilitating
characterized as sad
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Borna Virus
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cause hyper/hypo mania in horses
tested 100's of people w/ antibodies
only 12 were positive w/ exposure
all 12 had depression
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Amine Theory of Depression
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Low levels of NE & Serotonin cause depression
NE is a catecholamine
5HT is a indolamine
most antidepressants are amine agonists
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MAOI's
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inhibitors, block MAO
MAO is an enzyme that metabolizes catecholamines & 5HT
blocking causes catecholamines & 5HT to stay in the synapse longer
last class of drug to be offered, severe side effects
"Cheese effect": eat cheese, cause rise in BP
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Tricyclics
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Prevents reuptake of catecholamines & serotonin, nonspecific
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SSRI's
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act only on serotonin
blocks reuptake of serotonin
preferred b/c it is specific
one side effect, produces anxiousness/nervousness
not good for someone w/ anxiety problems
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A Typical Antidepressants
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NE reuptake inhibitors
Wellbutrin
DA & NE
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BDNF (chemical)
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some meds cause production of a chemical that leads neurons to grow in HA
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Cognitive Psychotherapy
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Cognitive Psychotherapy
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ECT
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shock therapy
works faster
80% respond
sometimes memory loss, antrograde amnesia
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Adjustment in Sleep Patterns
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some individs, their sleep in off, enter REM too fast. send to bed early or keep them up all night (quick fix)
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Mania
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a part of bipolar
Type 1 or type 2
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Type 1 Mania
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bouts of depression and full blown mania
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Type 2 Mania
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more depression
mania is more anxiety, not full blown
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Lithium
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drug of choice
mood stabilizer
had to be monitored closely
works best if given in manic phase
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Other meds for Mania
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valproate & carbamzepine
anticonvulsive meds
block arachidonic acid
this acid is produced during inflammation
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Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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Psychotic Cluster
hallucinations
delusions
hallucinations tend to be auditory
Disorganized cluster
incoherent speech, bizarre behaviors, inappropriate behaviors & thought behaviors
tend to be very literal
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Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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affect, speech, memory problems
tend to be more stable over time
less responsive to medication
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Disorganized Type
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tend to see confused behavior
inappropriate emotion, incoherent speech
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Catatonic Type
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Lack of movement
remain very still
have "waxy behaviors"
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Paranoid Type
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highlighted by delusions and hallucinations
delusions of control, grandeur, persecution
only time they are dangerous if they think your the one persecuting them
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Prodromal Phase
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see beginning of social withdrawl
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Active Phase
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see acute symptoms like hallucinations, delusions
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Residual Phase
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see some recovery of function
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Differential Diagnosis
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a lot of other things mimic schizophrenia, have to rule them out
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Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis
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argues that schizo is due to abnormalities w/ either pre or neonatal development of the nervous sys
lots of support
environmental factors don't cause symptoms
see abnormal brain anatomy or behaviors
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Antipsychotics/ neuroleptics
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early antipsychotics had 2 categories
Phenothiazines
Butyprophenones
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DA Theory
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Schizo was caused by over active DA
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Glutamate Theory
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DA & glutamate oppose each other
under activity of glutamate
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PCP
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PCP inhibits glutamate
PCP causes both positive and negative symptoms
PCP has very little effect in pre-adolescence
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Early Drugs and Side effects
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acted on receptors in basal ganglia
side effect was Tardive Dyskinesia
walk in slow deliberate manner, Thorazine shuffle
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