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PSYC 4640:Comprehensive Exam
Sour taste receptors
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Prevent potassium from leaving the receptor cell, thus creating depolarization
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Sweet, bitter, and umami receptors
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All utilize second messenger system - it is a way of getting info outside of the call to inside of the cell
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Can taste receptors be modified?
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Yes. Mirracle berries do this - you can buy on internet . Stimulates receptors to make sour things taste sweet. Don't drink orange juice after brushing teeth because of sodium loral sulfate - this is a chemical that increases bitter sensitivity and decrease sweet receptor sensitivity Put salt on watermelon and tomatoes and it tastes good
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Olfaction
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Fancy term for sense of smell. We have very few words to describe this, and we find it hard to place smells to objects. Our most vivid memories are associated with smell, apparently. Olfaction is a part of the "old brain" ( below cortical structure") Olfaction is only sense that does not go through thalamus - it goes through the cortex It is a warning mechanism. The olfactory bulb in humans is not big because it became less important. We grew out of it while other animals such as dogs grew into it The neurons responsible for smell are olfactory cells and line the epithelium at the back of your nasal passages. Life cycle is 60 days. Each cell as cilia that actually extend from the cell body into the mucosal lining of the membrane. Olfactory molecules stimulate olfactory receptors, and the molecules must go through a membrane to reach receptors. This is why there is a delay between inhalation and smell. This is why we waft during experiments.
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Our olfactory receptor cells respond using
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Second messenger system.
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Unlike taste we have no idea how many olfactory molecules we can respond to
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In humans it is though to be in the hundreds We don't know how they work Coffee and smoke smells come together through 6 of so chemicals. Researchers know less about smell than anything else
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Some people, because of brain injury perhaps, have a lack of smell it's called
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An anosmia They taste food different They like crunchy stuff.
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Nasally related what is a VNO
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You don't need to know It's a vomeronasal organ In animals it's important, in people not so much. It detects pheromones - chemicals secreted by animal that affect animals of the same species - typically they are sexual behaviors.
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Humans do resound to a few pheremones
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This is why woman who live together have the Same periods together. But it's not a huge phenomena in people, no matter what ax body spray tells you.
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Synesthesia
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Find the twos here. One type of this uses letters, numbers, and shapes that all combine a particular sensory perception. Someone who has it is called a "syntacdede" - some people will combine numbers with personality and gender.
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Ordinal linguistic personification
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Links personality with numbers
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Why did the senticede break up with his girlfriend
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Because her name tasted bad
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Other types of synesthesia includes people
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Where several senses( two or more ) go together Senticede conferences exist How many people have it? - 1 in 500 to 1 in a million, probably 1 in 25,000 - people who have it and know they have it - it is involuntary. It is projected - meaning that it happens outside of the body - colors are projected outside of the body - they are durable because they occur without fail similarly. Within individuals they are the same, but within the scope of all people who have it they have different ways of experiencing it.the letter a is typically red and s is yellow. High notes are lighter and low notes are darker. These are memorable experiences meaning that - ex mike = purple but you might not remember mike you will only remember purple. Most senticedes love having jr
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Who are mostly synesthesia
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Left handed people and women Left handed women. There is a genetic heritable component. Intellectually these people are within normal ranges however they may experience math difficulties - it is correlated with add ADHD and creativity. Not much consistency in research about these individuals.
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Are we born with more neurons than needed?
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Yes, and "miswiring" may lead to synesthesia. Also, we all may now or have at one time had synesthesia before excess Nuerons were depleted. We may have experienced it at one point because of our language. Ex - bitter feelings, sharp pain Fmris show no consistent difference between these people and normal people It can be helpful and it can get in the way
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2nd exam is a week from
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Thursday it's on the 27th!!!
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Sleep!!!
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I hope you got plenty on spring breaj
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I hope you got plenty on spring breaj
Internal time clocks
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We all have different internal ones
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Annual rythyms
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Also known as circa rythyms and last a year They are important for generating seasonal behaviors Humans have these but they are more observable in other species
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Circadian rythyms
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Last about a day The most common one is the rythym responsible for wakefulness and sleep. Also control body temp and drug sensitivity - why some people only take prescribed drugs at night or morning etc.
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Why you feel a second wind after an all nighter?
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You go back into a wakefulness phase
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Young and old fall asleep _____ and wake _______ This changes in _________
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Early, early Early twenties
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Do these rythyms persist in the absence of light?
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Yes, but light is critical in helping these rythyms stay in check with your biological clock.
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What is the resetter of our biological clock? What is our bio clock
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Light. Our internal rythyms and mechanisms that help control and regulate body + behacior
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Is our bio clock running on a 24 hour scale?
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No, it's roughly running on a 24.5 hour day We can only function on 24 hours a day because it's close enough
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What happens living under functions of no light?
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These studies were done in mammoth caves in Kentucky - "true darkness" People were put here and studies. What they found is that your rythyms stay in check with about 24 hours ok matter what - it's practical unchabgeable, alarm clocks can slightly alter but not much
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Why are we more exhausted on Mondays
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Because of our rythym - on the weekends we typically ignore our stimuli that keep us in a 24 hour rythym. By the time Monday is here 7 am feels like 5am This is why people fly west as opposed to east.
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Should you go to sleep and wake up at the same time every day
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Absolutely
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Before jet lag existed what existed?
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Boat lag. One day, roughly and generally, is needed for time zone adjustment.
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Baseball teams and gambling if teams fly east vs west vs same
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Same time zone- visiting team wins 47% of time - home team advantage. If visiting team flew west they win 44% of time. If they flew east they win 33% of the time
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How bad is jet lag?
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Very psychologically damaging, it can cause serious nueronal death in flight attendants. Hippocampus shrinks because of lack of sleep
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Does night shift work adjust your rythyms
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Not at all. Accidents are much more prevelant.
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Where is your bio clock and how is it affected in relation to how animals bio clocks are affected / can be manipulated.
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More things were known about it before it's whereabouts were found. It is impervious to most things done to animals. Drugs, food deprivation, brain damage, sleep deprivation unless a part of the hypothalamus called the SCN was affected (suprachiasmatic nucleus). If someone is blind but Nuerons from optic chasm to SCN are affected light can reset bio clock otherwise light cannot reset it.
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SCN
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Sends info to specialized ganglion cells in retina only responds to light very slowly turning on and off
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Melanopsin
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Gives time of day info
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What does Cns actually do and proteins doc they produce?
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Produces protein Per- is encoded by the gene period and Tim - encoded by gene time As day goes on they are produced more And once they reach a certain level they interact with a protein called clock which shuts down their production and throughout the night they go down to almost nothing where they then are reset. It also regulates melatonin from the pineiogland. It starts at 8/10pm.
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Can light alter per and tim production, what other chemical deals with this reaction and how?
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Yes, but melatonin helps prevent and block that action from happening
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Can taking melatonin help with regulation?
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No it just makes you sleepy it can't help you beat jet lag if you take it on a plane, take it right when you get somewhere else. Don't take it regularly, it's dumb, apparently.
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What does melatonin do
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Make you sleep
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Does SCN control timing of sleep
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Yes, but it doesn't cause it
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What is sleep and what happens in sleep deprivation
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A behavior, it is not the absence of a behavior. We certainly know what happens when we don't sleep - sleep deprivation causes irrationality, tremors, hallucinations... GABA build up. Sleep deprivation is really important in brainwashing, but it doesn't cause brain damage, it's stress that will eventually cause brain damage, not the lack of sleep.
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Some people think that, or at least used to think that, sleep is similar to hibernation
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They argued that sleep kept us out of harms way when we would have been inefficient.
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How much do cows sleep?
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Not much but they eat a lot.
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How much do cats ear?
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Not much but they sleep a lot
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What organism doesn't sleep
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No organism, everything sleeps
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What animal can sleep one hemisphere at a time?
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Dolphins.
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Why do people think we need sleep now
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So the body can rest and repair after the exertions of the day. People no longer need much sleep for physical exertions but more for cognitive emotional repairs.
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Cool song or band name from this class
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Exertions of the day The beta waves The hippocamels The a wavea
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Does sleep help with memory formation
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Yeah
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EEG helps Polysomnograph helps
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Measure electrical comical during sleep Eye movements during sleep
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Different stages of sleep Stage 1
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1st stage is... Stage 1 - a transition stage between sleep and wakefulness. It is desun chronicled
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If you are awake and alert and aroused what type of waves on an EEG, an electrical pattern, what would be present? What waves are more chill?
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Beta waves Alpha waves
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Stage 2 of sleep
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Sleep spindles decrease sensitivity to sensory input K complexes keep you asleep If you wake some one from stage 2 they will swear they were awake, but they weren't!
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Stage 3 + 4
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Are very similar Combined they are known as slow wave sleep. "Deep sleep" occurs here. This is deepest type of sleep. Thalamus relays NO information from external
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Each sleep stage affects
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Heart rate Breathing Brain activity, They all decline progressivelt
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REM sleep
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Assuming you stay on track REM sleep occurs 90 minutes after you lay down, it is not considered stage 5. Then you cycle throughout the night
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Throughout the night do you cycle back to stage one, if no, how often?
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1,2,3,4 rem Then 2,3,4,rem Then 3,4, rem Eventually rem sleep increases and stage 1 and 2 drop off Get sleep cycle at end of night
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Should you go to bed with your cell phone on?
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NEVER! Unless you turn your brigtbess down
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When you hit rem are beta or alpha waves present? What else happens
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It's beta waves Things are slightly heightened Muscle attonium. Muscles are paralyzed so you don't act out dreams.
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Rem is most associated with
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Dreaming If you wake up in rem you will remember your dreams, but you will not remember dreams in stage 4
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How long do we spend sleeping
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1/3rd of our lives, and 1/5th of that is in REM Deprivation of rem sleep will cause your body to force you into rem
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How do you prevent rem sleep in rats?
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With a morse water tank Rats hate water You put rats on a raft with water When it hits rem it falls in the water and wakes up and never gets to go to rem
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Slow wave sleep is important for
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Explicit memory
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Explicit memory
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Memory for facts and dates etc Slow waves are important for this
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Implicit memory
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Motor Running driving a bike Rem is more important for this
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Blogging need
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I've always felt a cathartic enlightenment in flushing things down the toilet, but I'm not just talking about eccrement. Actually, I'm not really talking about eccrement at all, at least not for these stories Flushing drugs down the story
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Why do we dream
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A couple of theories deal with this 1) activation synthesis hypothesis
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Activation hypothesis synthesis
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Certain parts of cortex become active and brain makes up a story to make that activation make sense Amygdyla, emotional core, is active because many dreams are emotional
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What is active I. Falling and flying dreams
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Vestibular and attonium
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Lucid dreaming
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Your dreaming and you know it She is not entirely sure of what it's like
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Clubca
Reticular formation
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A network of Nuerons that ex trends from medulla to forebrain. It has ascending and descending tracks. This is important for sleep and arousal.
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Is arousal the same thing as attention?
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No you can be aroused and not attentive. Ex unplanned pregnancy
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Prontomenconphellon
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Neural tracks that recieve sensory info and also generate there own activity. They release acetyl Coleen and glutamate, both excitatory neural transmitters. Hypothalamus, thalamus, and basal forebrain are all located here.
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Pons
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Also important for arousal in locus cerreleus which emits bursts of activity when reinforcing or punishing occurs. Also contains and works off of nuereponipherine transmitter. It is inactive during sleep.
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According to new science do people that do shift work experience brain damage
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Yes, to the local cerreleus- a protective protein is not released.
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Hypothalamus
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Influences arousal and releases NT histomine - which is excitatory throughout the cortex- also part of an allergic response
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What do anti histomines do?
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Make you drousy
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Orexin
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A NT that increases arousal and helps keep you awake
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Basal forebrain releases
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Acetyl co A and sends info to cortex to help with arousal and is important for arousal and attention
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Aricept
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Acetyl co a inhibitor which is important for Alzheimer's patients in early stages
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Sleep inducing cells
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Also in basal forebrain that release GABA. GABA prevents nueronal stimulation. Without this inhibition NO sleep would occur.
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GABA
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Can act locally, which is how some dolphins sleep with one hemisphere asleep and one awake
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Sleep requires
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Decreased arousal - the chemical adenosine helps with this: it is a break down product of nueronal activity that accumulates through out the day. This adenosine inhibits cell in the basal forebrain important for arousal.
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Caffeine blocks ___
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Adenosine and that's why it wakes you up
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Other chemicals that keep you less arouses
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Prostaglandins which are important for sleep. Released by brain and immune system.
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Sitmus behavior
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When immune system releases prostaglandins to make you sleep and repair
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REM sleep
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Result of balancing act between acetyl Coleen and serotonin. Further in sleep more acetyl Coleen and less serotonin
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Rem sleep begins with a specific neural activity in the pons
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That then goes to the LGN of thalamus to occipital cortex. They are conveniently known as PGO waves.
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If we are sleep deprived we are making up for
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PGO waves through rem sleep. These are the most important in sleep.
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If sleep is made impossible it's the
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PGO waves that occur during wakefulness, eventually
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Sleep disorders
Insomnia, same as sleep deprivation?
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Insomnia and sleep deprivation are very different. Sleep deprivation is the disallowance of sleep but insomnia is the lack of the ability to sleep
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What is insomnia
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Hyperousal, people do not report daytime sleepiness with this.
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Sleep deprivation report
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Daytime sleepiness
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3 types of insomnia
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1 onset insomnia - difficulty falling asleep 2 - maintaince insomnia - have difficulty staying asleep and experience sleep wake events during night - Tim? 3 - termination insomnia - wake up but cannot go back to bed
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Causes of insomnia
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Noise, light... Sleep hygiene is important even without... Bed should be used for two things only
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Are pills useful for insomnia
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Typically no.
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Apnea - two kinds and definition
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A sleep disorder. Two kinds 1 obstructive apnea - very correlated with obesity. Obstruction from skin does not allow air into body. 2 central apnea - result of brain damage to CNS. Definitions are both an inability to breath while sleeping. Both are same symptoms with different causes. Obstructive apnea can lead to central apnea
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People with apnea will
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Wake up in sleep to breath, but won't remember in morning , they will just wake up tires.
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Treatment for apnea
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Obstructive - Surgery, skin will be shaved off to open up airways. C pap masks will also be used. Very bothersome, invasive , and annoying.
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Periodic limb movements during sleep
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Another sleep disorder; typically occur in people over 30. Arms and legs move so they do not occur in REM sleep. Basically, you flail around extensively all night and you might wake yourself up or your sleep mate.
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Narcalepsy
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Characterized by unexpected periods of sleep that occur during wakefulness. These periods of sleep can last from 2 to 4 minutes. Many are only a few seconds which are "micro sleeps". In rare cases, sleep can last up to 15 minutes.
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What is Narcalepsy caused by
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Probably genetic It usually appears in ages of people 17 to 25 years old.
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4 Main symptoms of Narcalepsy
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Only a fourth of all Narcalepsy have all 4 1 attacks of sleep 2 cataplexy - extreme muscle weakness while awake. Ex fall to the ground awake and fully conscious. Often brought on by extreme emotion. "Cataplexic attacks" - google it! 3 - sleep paralysis upon falling asleep or waking up. Conscious during paralysis. 4 - hypnagogic hallucinations. We all experience these at times. Dream like experiences that co mix with reality and occur when you are falling asleep. On average they only get 1 + hour of sleep a day
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Narcalepsy is essentially
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Rem sleep when you are awake: orexin, important for wakefulness, lack these cells... Ritalin is prescribed for this, typically. Xyrem has become popular for cataplexy. The problem is that it is incredibly closely monitored. It is a GHB salt - a date rape drug.
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REM behavior disorder
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Another sleep disorder: occurs without muscle attonium. Characterized by muscles not relaxing which is why they act out there dreams. Behavior occurs in older makes because of brain damage. People use this as a murder defense at times. It only has been proven once.
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Medication of Rem disorder behavior
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Klonzopam - an anti seizure medication and a CNS depressant.
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Night terrors
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More common in kids. Occur in stage 4 non rem sleep, topically. Individual wakes up in an absolute panic and with no idea why, different than nightmares. Nightmares you know the cause. Most kids "grow out of them" usually.
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Talking in your sleep can occur
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In any stage of sleep, it is harmless and it is false that you can get someone to tell the truth in sleep.
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Sleep walking is typically
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Genetic and primarily in children, usually occurs in stage 3 Le 3
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Misconceptions about sleep walking
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1 it is not okay to wake some one up whose sleep walking(false) 2 they are dreaming(false) Has been used as a murder defense as well.
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Basal metabolism defined:
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The rate of energy that is used while the body is at rest. We expend a tremendous amount of energy daily in order to maintain our bodies temperature.
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Homeostasis
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High school all over again. There is a set point that is sought to be maintained
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Homeostasis has been replaced by
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Allostasis. Depending on what your doing your set point might change.
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Amphibians, frogs, reptiles are called
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Poikleothermic: their body temperature is the same temp as the environmental temperature.
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Rattle snake round up
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Happens in early march. As many rattle snakes are rounded up as possible. Unfair fight. Animals are just recovering hibernation. Un impressive until June.
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Mammals, us, are known as
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Homeothermic - we maintain a constant body temp no matter what the environmental temp is. That is where most of our energy is. We have evolved this way because a certain temp is vital and necessary for most internal processes. Also because it allows us to be active no matter what the external temperature is.
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There are both physiologic and behavioral mechanisms that allow us to have
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Hypothermic lifestyle. Ex we sweat when we are hot. Blood vessels close to the skins surface will dia late to cool blood when it is warm out and opposite occurs during cold- we shiver to do rythmic muscle contractions and we have goose bumps but we have evolved out of that. Behavioarlly we wil put on or take off a coat
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Hypothalamus
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Primary center for temperature control - preoptic area Anterior to the anterior part of hypothalamus ( POA/AH)
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Temperature sensitivity in skin and spinal chord to the POA
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Also monitors it's own temperature. If area is damaged wild fluctuations in temperature occur and it's not good.
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Interesting phenomena that is temp related
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When organisms are exposed to bacteria and viruses fevers occur. Fevers are temperature related events
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Macrophages
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Particular cells of the immune system that secrete cytokines (IL 1). It travels to hypothalamus and with help of prostaglandins - important for pain - temperature is increased.
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Why are fevers beneficial?
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Fevers are a part of sickness behavior. You will not do much. You get sleepy. Your immune system needs as much energy as possible to fight sickness. Also, many bacteria and viruses are hear sensitive and will die.
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Playing possum
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Acting like you are dead, and, possums do this, they are not the only ones. Some predators will prey based on movement. This is why it developed. Evolutionarily it's important, but, a possum cannot do it forever. It has to move because their body temp starts to rise. Do fevers do this in some way?
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Official name for playing possum
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Tonic immobility
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What percent water are we?
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70% this is why water regulation is so important
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Every chemical reaction in our body is dependent on
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Chemicals In water we have. Body needs fluids to maintain circulatory system had normal blood pressure.
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Amount of water in system is
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Closely monitored. Animals that live close to water will excrete copious amounts of urine: animals that don't will not.
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Drinking fluids has two components
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It anticipates and fulfills needs of 1) concentration of fluids in cells 2) total fluid volume in blood
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Kind of thirst related to volume in blood is
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Hypobolemic thirst
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Osmotic thirst
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Concentration of fluids in cells. Concentration of solids in system stays at a constant level. When basic balance is altered, such that solutes increases and fluids decrease, than an osmotic pressure is what is experienced. More basically, high concentration goes to low concentration. This happens when you eat. Water comes out of cells and into bodies fluids. When water leaves cells we become thirsty. Also possible that you are sweating. Inverse relationship between excessive solutes and decreased fluids. FREE PEANUTS AND POPCORN MAKE YOU THIRSRY
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How does brain know that water has left cells to fluid
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Two important areas that send info to the hypothalamus, they are around the third ventricle. OVLT and SFO. They send info to the supra optic area of the hypothalamus and the PVN. These parts of hypothalamus control release of ADH(dasopresine): causes us to excrete more concentrated urine. Some of that info also goes to the lateral preoptic area that control drinking and make us thirsty.
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Body monitors numbers of swallows and stomach dis tension because
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It realizes when you do and do not need to drink more water.
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Hypobolemia
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If blood volume and blood pressure are low you will experience hypo polemic thirst. Happens when you are bleeding and losing thirst.
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How is hypobolemic thirst detected?
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Baro receptors are in blood vessels that detect changes in blood pressure and increase thirst if it drops too low. Mechanism two - if pressure drops then kidney releases renin- it goes through different hormonal changes that don't need to be worried about except for the end result angiotensin II - this then increases BP
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Angiotensin II also
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Stimulates cells in SFO, they send info to the preoptic area that increases drinking. Interesting part is that there is a tremendous preference towards a salty type of fluid about equal to the salt level found in blood. Adrenals release aldosterone as well. This causes kidneys to conserve salt and helps trigger craving result. You will drink your own sweat because of the salt in it
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Hunger
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In order for us to access all the proteins and carbs and things we need to survive we need to eat and break it down via digestion to access jt
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Digestion begins in
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Mouth- saliva contains enzymes that break down carbohydrates. Chew it. Swallow it: food goes from esophagus to stomach that has hydrochloride acid among other enzymes that break down enzymes. Then there is a sphincter that separates stomach from small intestine and then food goes to small intwatine
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In small intestine further digestion occurs
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Of carbs and proteins etc but this is where you absorb most solutes into the blood streak and once they are released into blood stream they are used or stored
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In large intestine
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Which comes next, minerals and water is absorbed and excretion is left.
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Carnivores
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Eat ONLY meat
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Herbivores
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Eat ONLY plants.
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Most humans are ... Are they learned or innate?
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Omnivoric. In may cases they are learned. In some countries dogs are considered a delicacy
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We have more of an innate preference towards
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Bitter and sweet thibgs
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How do we stop eating, how do we know when?
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Baby rats will drink milk until it comes out of there throat. Humans don't typically graze and we typically know when to stop for two reasons
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How do we know when to stop eating
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1 - our stomach becomes distended to a point 2 - coloric intake. Did we eat calorie rich things, or just paper?
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Sprain kink nerve
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Sends nutritional info to nerve
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The brain mechanisms important for hunger
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(Complex)
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Arcuate
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Part of hypothalamus important for hunger . It had some Nuerons sensitive to hunger and other Nuerons sensitve to satiety.
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Lateral hypothalamus/BMH
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If info goes from accurate nucleus to here then hunger is increased.
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If info goes from arcuate nucleus to PVN
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Animal/ person will feel satiety/ fullness.
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Chemicals and or hormones and or NTs important for hunger
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Ghrelin, nuero peptide Y,AgRP
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Important chemicals for satiety
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CCK, insulin, leptin
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Arexin
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Important for hunger and is why you can eat dessert when you are absolutely full. It is able to overcome satiety in the presence of desert.
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Leptin
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Has been identified as linked with obesity. It is released by fat cells, maybe obese people don't have leptin. BUT, it's not true. Sometimes they have even more Leptin.
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Temperature
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Deals with basal metabolism that needs energy and metabolism
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People have different metabolic rates that are typically
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Genetically determined
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Heritability factor for obesity
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.7/.8 But, based on metabolic rate , it's more difficult than others.
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Do diets work
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No. You need diet and exercise.
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Obesity is considered a medical problem yes or no
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Yes
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Is anorexia considered a medical problem
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No
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How many college females have some form of disordered eating
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60 to 70 percent
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Anorexia criteria from DSM and why it's psychological
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Why it's considered psychological Body dysmorphia Fear of gaining weight, and inability to eat More deadly than depression
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Factors related to anorexia
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Issues of control. It is deadly, fifteen percent with severe cases will die. If someone goes to a therapist and there's a hint of disordered eating yellow fingernails are looked for, it's a tell take sign( acid from throat from when you make yourself throw up). Characterized by underweight. Type A personality.
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Bolemia
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Characterized by overweight or normal weight. Super characterized by binging and purging. Typically blame others for their behavior. Type B personality. Sometimes this is developed after anorexia. Sometimes a transition out of anorexia. Sometimes comes with sexual abuse. Keeps people away.
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