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Final Study Guide
Intuition |
Relying on common sense as a means of knowing about the world. |
Deduction |
Using logical reasoning and current knowledge as a means of knowing about the world. |
Authority |
Relying on a knowledgeable person or group as a means of knowing about the world. |
Observation |
Relying on what one observes as a means of knowing about the world. |
Empiricism |
Gaining knowledge through systematic observation of the world. |
Empiricism |
"gaining knowledge through systematic observation of the world
-relying on authority to learn about behavior limits our understanding because not all authority figures are equally reliable
-Galileo" |
Determinism |
The assumption that phenomena have identifiable causes. |
Determinism |
"assumption that phenomena have identifiable causes (and human behaviors)
-goal is to explain behavior by understanding causes" |
Parsimony |
The assumption that the simplest explanation of a phenomenon is most likely to be correct. |
Parsimony |
"assumption that the simplest explanation if a phenomenon is most likely to be correct
-development of a study that falsify a simple or complex explanation" |
Testability |
The assumption that explanations of behavior can be tested and falsified through observation. |
Testability |
"assumption that explanations of behavior that can be tested and falsified through observation
-confirmation bias-- seeking only evidence that supports our beliefs and ignoring" |
Confirmation Bias |
Seeking only evidence that supports our beliefs and ignoring evidence that contradicts those beliefs. |
Basic Research |
Research conducted with the goal of understanding fundamental processes of phenomena. |
Applied Research |
Research conducted with the goal of solving everyday problems. |
External Validity |
"The degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study.
*Used more in applied research." |
External Validity |
The degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study. |
external validity |
degree to which results accurately generalize to other individuals/situations |
External Validity |
"the degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study
-real-life situations" |
Why do psychologists use the scientific method? |
They use it because it provides the best way to gain new knowledge about behavior. |
How do psychologists use the scientific method? |
Psychologists use it to observe behaviors as they occur in everyday life and in situations researchers are interested in learning about. |
What are the canons of the scientific method? |
Empiricism, determinism, parsimony, and testability. |
What is the difference between basic and applied research? |
Basic research is designed to answer fundamental questions about behavior. Applied research is designed to gain solutions to everyday problems. |
How does basic and applied research interact to increase our knowledge about behavior? |
Basic research advances our understanding of the causes of behavior. In applied research, these explanations are tested in everyday situations to inform researchers about the best solutions for everyday problems. Knowledge gained about these problems in applied research inform basic researchers about how explanations of behavior may need to be revised to explain behaviors that occur in everyday life. |
Descriptive Research Question |
A research question that asks about the presence of behavior, how frequently it is exhibited, or whether there is a relationship between different behaviors. |
Descriptive Research Question |
a research question that asks about the presence of behavior, how frequently it is exhibited, or whether there is a relationship between different variables |
descriptive research question |
asks about the presence of behavior, how frequently it is exhibited or if theres a relationship between different behaviors |
Causal Research Questions |
A research question that asks what causes specific behaviors to occur. |
Theory |
An explanation of behavior that can be tested through research studies. |
Literature Review |
A process of searching for and reviewing previous studies related to a study being developed to add to the knowledge in an area and make appropriate predictions about the data. |
Peer Review |
A process that takes place prior to publication of an article in many article in many journals where experts make suggestions for improving an article and make a recommendation about whether an article should be published in the journal. |
Abstract |
A summary of an article that appears at the beginning of the article and in searchable databases of journal articles. |
Abstract |
"summary of an article that appears at the beginning of the article and in searchable databases of journal articles
-brief description of the methodology
-major results of the study
-what we learned from the study" |
Introduction |
A section of a APA-style article that introduces the topic of the study, reviews relevant background studies, and presents predictions for the data. |
Introduction |
"introduces the topic of the study, reviews relevant background studies, and presents predictions for the data (general topic)
-make an argument about what the present study will contribute to knowledge in the selected area
-state research question, what is already known, hypotheses, and argument (why is it important)" |
Method |
Section of an APA-style article that describes the participants, design, stimuli, apparatus, and procedure used in the study. |
Method |
describes the participants, design, stimuli and apparatus, and procedure used in the study |
Results |
Section of an APA-style article that presents a summary of the results and the statistical tests of the predictions. |
Results |
"-presents a Summary of the results and the stats tests of the predictions
-differences and relationships between the variables" |
Discussion |
Section of an APA-style article that compares the results of the study to the predictions and the results of previous studies. |
Discussion |
"-compares the results of a study to the predictions and the results of previous studies
-states whether or not the hypotheses were supported or not" |
Hypothesis |
Prediction regarding the results of a research study |
Null Hypothesis |
An effect or relationship doesn't exist (or exists in opposite direction of alternative hypothesis) in the population |
Null Hypothesis |
hypothesis that an effect or relationship does not exist (or exists in the opposite direction of the alternative hypothesis) in the population |
null hypothesis |
the hypothesis that an effect or relationship does not exist in the population |
Theory-driven Hypothesis |
Hypothesis for a study that is based on a theory about the behavior of interest. |
Theory- Driven Hypothesis |
"based on a theory about the behavior of interest
-deductive reasoning-- using general info (theory) to make a specific prediction (hypothesis)" |
Data-Driven Hypothesis |
Hypothesis for a study that is based on the results of previous, related studies. |
Data- Driven Hypothesis |
"based on the results on the results of previous related studies
-inductive reasoning-- using specific info to make a more general prediction" |
Deductive Reasoning |
Using general information to make a specific prediction |
Inductive Reasoning |
Using specific information to make a more general prediction. |
Descriptive Hypothesis |
A prediction about the results of a study that describes the behavior or the relationship between behaviors. |
Causal Hypothesis |
A prediction about the results of a study that includes the causes of a behavior. |
How do researchers develop a research question? |
Research questions come from many sources, including researcher's curiosity. However, research questions should be relevant to current knowledge in the field of study and answerable using scientific methods. A literature review helps researchers know if their research question fulfills these criteria. |
Development of Research Question |
"descriptive-- research question that asks about the presence of behavior, how frequently it's exhibited, or whether there is a relationship between the different behaviors
predictive-- research question that ask what causes specific behaviors to occur (comparison of theories)" |
How do researchers conduct a literature review? |
A literature review is a thorough review of research done in an area of study. Searchable databases, such as PsycINFO and PsycARTICLES, are useful for conducting a literature review. Conducting a Google wed search or using Wikipedia is not a good way to conduct a literature review. |
What are some useful resources for a literature review? |
Searchable databases that provide researchers access to empirical and review journal articles include PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, PubMed, and ERIC. Google Scholar may also be useful in locating these sources. |
What will you find in a literature review? |
It produces journal articles that researchers can use to understand what types of research questions add to knowledge in a field of study, what methods researchers are currently using to answer those research questions, and the theories or past results in an area that help researchers develop hypothesis for their studies. |
What are the different types of research articles and how are they organized? |
Research articles are either empirical, review, or theoretical. Empirical articles describe a study conducted by the authors of an article. Review articles summarize results and methods from a particular area of study. Theoretical articles discuss new or revised theories of behavior in an area of study. |
How do we use a literature review to make hypotheses? |
Researchers can use theories described in journal articles to develop hypotheses, or researchers can use past studies' results to develop a hypothesis about the outcome of their study. |
What are the different types of hypotheses that a researcher can make? |
A researcher can male theory-driven and data-driven hypotheses. |
Internal Validity |
The degree to which a study provides causal information about behavior. |
Internal validity |
the degree to which an experiment supports clear causal conclusions |
Internal Validity |
the degree to which a study provides casual information about behavior |
Internal Validity |
"degree to which a study provides causal information about the behavior
-more control = increase" |
Reliability |
The degree to which the results of a study can be replicated under similar conditions. |
reliability |
how consistent the measurements are |
Reliability |
"the degree to which the results of a study can be replicated under similar conditions
-can be a survey or questionnaire depending on type of observation technique used" |
Operational Definition |
The definition of an abstract concept used by a researcher to measure or manipulate the concept in a research study. |
Operational Definition |
"the definition of an abstract concept used by a researcher to measure or manipulate the concept in a research study
-depression, anxiety, intelligence, and memory" |
Naturalistic Observation |
A data collection technique involving noninvasive observation of individuals in their natural environments. |
Naturalistic Observation |
"a data collection technique involving noninvasive observation of individuals in their natural environments
-without influencing the behaviors
ex: animals in natural environment or children playing in park" |
Interrater Reliability |
A measure of the degree to which different observers rate behaviors in similar ways. |
Survey Research |
A research study that uses the survey observational technique to measure behavior. |
Close-ended Response Scale |
Participants respond to survey questions according to the response options provided by the researcher. |
close ended response scale |
researcher gives participants a choice of responses |
Open-ended Response Scale |
Participants respond to survey questions in any manner they feel is appropriate for the question. |
Open-Ended Response Scale |
Participants respond to survey questions in any matter they feel is appropriate for the question |
open ended response scale |
participants can freely answer with own thoughts |
Qualitative Data |
Nonnumerical participant responses. |
Quantitative Data |
Numerical data. |
Interviews |
A data collection techniquee that involves direct questioning of individuals about their behaviors and attitudes. |
Systematic Observation |
Data collection technique where control us exerted over the conditions under which the behavior is observed. |
Systematic Observation |
"data collection technique where control is exerted over the conditions under which the behavior is observed
-can take place in a laboratory" |
Archival Data |
A data collection technique that involves analysis of preexisting data. |
Content Anaylsis |
An archival data collection technique that involves analysis of the content of an individual's spoken or written record. |
Variable |
An attribute that can vary across individuals. |
Variability |
The spread of scores in a distribution |
Dependent/response variables |
A variable that is measured or observed from an individual. |
Case Studies |
A research design that involves intensive study of particular individuals and their behaviors. |
Case Study |
"a research design that involves intensive study of particular individuals and their behaviors
-small n design-- an experiment conducted with one or few participants to better understand the behavior of those individuals" |
Small n Design |
An experiment conducted with one or few participants to better understand the behavior of those individuals. |
Correlational Study |
A type of research design that examines the relationships between multiple dependent variables, without manipulating ant of the variables. |
Correlational Study |
"type of research design that examines the relationships between multiple dependent variables, without manipulation of any of the variables
-doesn't determine causation" |
Correlational Study |
A type of research design that examines the relationships between multiple dependent variables, without manipulation |
correlational study |
a type of research that examines the relationships between multiple dependent variables without manipulating any of the variables |
Predictor Variable |
The dependent variable in a correlational study that is used to predict the score on another variable. |
Predictor Variable |
the dependent variable in a correlational study that is being predicted by the predictor variable |
predictor variable |
the DV in a correlational study that is used to predict the score on another variable |
Outcome Variable |
The dependent variable in a correlational study that is being predicted by the predictor variable. |
outcome variable |
the DV in a correlational study that is being predicted by the predictor variable |
Positive Relationship |
A relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with an increase in the other variable. |
Negative Relationship |
A relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with a decrease in the other variable. |
negative relationship |
one variable increases while the other decreases |
Scatterplot |
A graph showing the relationship between two dependent variables for a group of individuals. |
Third-Variable Problem |
The presence of extraneous factors in a study that affect the dependent variable and can decrease the internal validity of the study. |
third variable problem |
the presence of extraneous factors in a study that affect the DV and can decrease the internal validity |
Third Variable Problem |
presence of extraneous factors in a study that affect the dependent variable and can decrease the internal validity |
Experiment |
A type of research design that involves manipulation of an independent variable, allowing control of extraneous variables that could affect the results. |
experiment |
type of research design that involves manipulation of an IV, allowing control of extraneous variables that can affect the control |
Experiment |
"type of research design that involves manipulation of an independent variable, allowing control of extraneous variables that could affect the results
-independent variable is manipulated such that the levels of the variable changes across or within subjects in the experiment" |
Independent variable |
A variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher such that the levels of the variable change across or within subjects in the experiment. |
independent variable |
a variable in the experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter |
Levels of the Independent Variable |
Different situations or conditions that participants experience in an experiment because of the manipulation of the independent variable |
Experimental Groups |
The group of participants in an experiment that experience the treatment level of the independent variable. |
Control Groups |
The groups of participants in an experiment that do not experience the treatment level of the independent variable. |
Confounding Variable |
An extraneous factor present in a study that may affect the results. |
Confounding Variable |
"an extraneous factor present in a study that may affect the results
-needs to be controlled in order to be successful" |
Random Assignment |
Participants are randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable in an experiment to control for individual differences as an extraneous variable. |
Random Assignment |
participants are randomly assigned to levels of the IV in an experiment to control for individual differences as an extraneous factor |
Random Assignment |
participants are randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable in an experiment to control for individual differences as an extraneous factor |
random assignment |
participants are randomly assigned to levels of the IV |
Quasi-experiment |
A type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs. |
Quasi-Experiment |
"a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to occur
-pretest-posttest design-- behavior is both measured before and after a treatment or condition is implemented" |
quasi experiment |
a type of research design where a comparison is made as in an experiment except there is no random assignment |
Pretest-posttest design |
A type of research design (often quasi-experiment) where behavior is measured both before and after a treatment or condition is implemented. |
How do psychologists observe behavior? |
There are some common techniques used by psychologists to observe behavior described in this chapter. |
What are some common techniques for observing and recording behavior in different situations? |
Naturalistic observations, surveys/questionnaires, systematic observations, and archival data. |
How do psychologists use observations to learn about behavior? |
Each technique can be used in different research designs to allow psychologists to answer different types of questions about behavior. |
What questions about behavior do the different research methods allow psychologists to answer? |
Case studies allow descriptive questions to be answered for a single individual or institution. Correlational studies allow descriptive and predictive questions to be answered about behavior. Quasi-experiments and experiments allow comparisons among groups, with experiments answering causal questions about behavior. |
Which research method is best when asking about the cause of behavior? |
Experiments are the best method to use when asking causal questions about behavior. |
Plagiarism |
Claiming another's work or ideas as one's own. |
What are the different ways that psychologists present research? |
They present their research as written reports, oral presentations, and poster presentations. |
How do we write an APA-style article? What information goes in each section of the article? How do we format the article?and |
An APA-style article is organized into sections that present the background and purpose of the study (introduction), method of study, results of the study, and conclusions of the study (discussion). Additional format information is described in this chapter and APA Publication Manual. |
What is an appropriate format for an oral presentation of research? |
It is organized according to the major sections of an APA-style article, but presented orally, and often employs visual aids such as PowerPoint slides. |
How do we prepare a conference-style poster presentation pf research? |
It is also organized according the sections of an APA-style article, but provides a more visual representation of the most important information that is presented in those sections. |
Nuremberg Code |
Set of ethical guidelines developed for research with human participants based on information gained during the Nuremberg trials after world war II. |
Informed Consent |
Obtaining consent from participants for participation in research after the participants have been informed about the purpose, procedure, and risks of the research. |
Informed Consent |
Obtaining consent from participation in research after the participants have been informed about the purpose, procedure, and risks of the research |
Coercion |
Forcing participants to participate in research without their consent. |
Coercion |
"Forcing participants to participate in research without their consent
1. Participation is voluntary and must be given info about risks
2. Research must contribute to scientific knowledge and conducted by qualified researchers" |
Deception |
Misleading the participants about the purpose of a research study. |
Deception |
"Misleading participants about the purpose or procedures of a research study
-Researchers must ensure the confidentiality of participant data" |
confederate |
A person who is part of a research study but acts as though he or she is not, to deceive the participant about the study's purpose. |
Debriefing |
Discussing the purpose and benefits of a research study with participants, often done at the end of the study. |
Debriefing |
Discussing the purpose and benefits of a research study with subjects, often done at the end of the study |
Consent form |
A form provided to the participants at the beginning of a research study to obtain their consent for the study and explain the study's purpose and risks, and the participant's rights. |
Risk-Benefit Analysis |
Weighing the risks against the benefits of a research study to ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks. |
Confidentiality |
It is the researcher's responsibility to protect the participants' identity and right to privacy (including participant responses) during and after the research study. |
Institutional Review Board (IRB) |
A committee of knowledgeable individuals who oversee the ethics of research with human participants conducted at an institution. |
Demand Characteristic |
A source of bias that can occur in a study due to participants' changing their behavior based on their perception of the study and its purpose. |
Demand Characteristics |
Cues that participants pick up from an experiment that allow them to generate guesses regarding the experimenter's hypotheses |
Demand Characteristics |
Demand Characteristics |
Field Experiment |
An experiment conducted in the participants' natural environment. |
study conducted in a participants natural environment |
study conducted in a participants natural environment |
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) |
Committee of knowledgeable individuals that oversees the ethics of research with nonhuman animal subjects at an institution. |
Plagarism |
Claiming another's work or ideas as one's own. |
Why do we need ethical guidelines in research? |
As described in this chapter, ethical guidelines are needed to define the appropriate treatment of subjects in psychological research. |
How were ethical guidelines for psychological research developed? |
They were derived over the years as the original Nuremberg Code was revised and adopted by the APA and the U.S. Government in the Belmont Report. |
Were the Milgram (1963) and Zimbardo (1974) studies ethical? |
Due to the level of deception and stress caused by both the situation and the participants' experience in the Milgram study, and the level of stress experienced by the "prisoners" in the Zimbardo study, many researchers believe that these studies were not ethical. |
What are the current ethical guidelines for human participants? |
Respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. |
What is an institutional review board (IRB) and what purpose does it serve? |
The IRB oversees research conducted at each institution. Un cases were researchers may not be the most objective judge of ethics of their study, the IRB provides more objective review. |
What are the current ethical guidelines for animal subjects? |
Care and housing of the animals, acquisition of the animals, procedures used in the study, personnel. |
How do ethic influence the way we report research? |
Ethical guidelines for reporting research necessitate accurate reports of results and proper citation of sources. |
Gardner (1999) types of intelligence |
verbal, mathematical, logical |
Goleman (1995) types of intelligence |
social and emotional |
nominal scale |
a scale of data measurement that involved nonordered categorical responses |
Nominal Scale |
unordered categories (University where degree was earned) |