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Uniformity
Exhibited mostly at the molecular and cellular level
Diversity
Exhibited mainly at the organismal level. cell structure: Prok vs Euk # cells: unicellular vs. multicellular the way organisms acquire food: autotrophs vs. heterotrophs
Scientific Method
1. Question 2. Hypothesis 3. Experiment 4. Accept or reject hypothesis
Organism is alive
Metabolism Growth and developement Reproduction Response to environment
Living Matter consists of 25 elements 96% of living matter is (bulk elements):
(H)ydrogen  (O)xygen (N)itrogen (C)arbon
Trace elements
Necessary in small amounts
Atom
The smallest possible particle of an element. It is made up of protons, electrons, and neutrons.
Atomic Number
Number of protons. Determines the element.
Atomic weight
#protons+number neutrons.
Ions
Atoms with extra or missing electrons. This gives a positive or negative charge.
Isotopes
atoms with same number of protons but different number of neutrons. If unstable, are radioactive.  Carbon isotopes differ in number of neutrons.
Valence shell
Outer shell. # of electrons in valence determines an atom's chem behavior. Full means stable H needs 1 electron to fill valence O needs 2 N needs 3 C needs 4
compound
a molecule made of 2 or more elements
Covalent bond
Strong bond sharing electrons. Single: one pair shared, Double: two pairs shared.  Polar:  when one of the atoms attracts the electron pair more strongly. Ex water is polar, oxygen attracts electrons more than the hydrogen. 
Ionic bond
Strong bond betw atoms when electron is transferred from one atom to another. Both atoms become charged ions--one positive(cation) and one negative (anion). 
Hydrogen bond
Weak bond formed by electrical attraction betw a hydrogen atom and polarother atom(usually O or N).  Important for biology because: stabilizes large molecules(DNA, proteins) or for temporary associations betw molecules (signaling).  
Mass conservation law
All atoms of the reactants are still present in the products. 
Chemical equilibrium
the forward and reverse reactions occur at equal velocity. Same rate
Electronegative elements
Readily acquire electrons to become - ions (right side of periodic table)
How to distiguish one element from another?
By their atomic number ( number of protons)
How do atoms share electrons?
Covelant bonds. Valence shells are filled
Reversible reaction
when there is chemical equilibrium
Polar Molecule
molecule with an unequal distribution of electrons. example water
Water is a polar molecule. Why?
The hydrogen end has a slightly positive charge while the oxygen end has a slightly negative charge.
What type of bonds do water molecules form with each other
hydrogen bonds
Properties of water
1. Cohesive: molecules stick together because of hydrogen bonds betw molecules. High surface tension 2. High specific heat: takes a lot of energy to increase temp 3. High heat of vaporization: takes a lot of energy to vaporize water
Concentration
number of solute molecules per unit of solvent
Solute
Compounds being dissolved
Solvent
Liquid, usually water
Why is water a good solvent?
Because it is polar. Hydrophilic compounds love water. 
pH range 0-14
Neutral ph7 (water) acidic <ph7 higher H+ basic ph>7 lower H+
How many H+ in pure water?
10^-7 M
pH (formula)
pH= -log [H+]
Buffers
weak acids/bases that can take up or donate H+
How does a base affect H+ conc in a solution?
Takes up Hydrogen because it is lower H+. pH will increase, overall  H+ will lower. 
organic molecule
carbon-containg molecule
Why is carbon a good building block?
it is tetravalent. Can make 4 chemical bonds.
Variations in the carbon skeleton
Length shape (branched or not, rings number and position of double bonds side groups
Butane and 2- Methylprobane (isobutane)
both are C4H10, but vary in branching
Side groups
...
Carboxy group
Carboxylic acids are acidic because of the hydrogen in the -COOH group
Amino group
C-NH2 acts as a base because the nitrogen atom will draw an H+ (proton) to it
Isomer
Carbon compounds with same atomic composition but different structures and properties
Types of isomers
Structural have different carbon skeletons Geometric have different spatial arrangement of the side groups next to a double bond Enantiomers have different spatial arrangement of the side groups around an asymmetric carbon atom. Important for drugs
4 types of macromolecules
polysaccharides lipids proteins nucleic acids(DNA,RNA)
polymers
very large molecule made of a chain of monomers
Dehydration Synthesis
Also condensation. Monomers are linked together to form a polymer and water is split off. 
Hydrolysis
Reverse of dehydration. Polymers are split into monomers and water is released.
Polysaccharide functions
Fuel and building material
1) What is the sugar monomer called? 2) What are two linked sugar monomers called? 3) What are three or more linked sugar monomers called?
1) Monosaccharide 2) Disaccharide 3) Polysaccharide
What atoms make up glucose ring
5 carbon 1 oxygen
Lipid characteristics
hydrophobic Not polymers
Which macromolecule is not a polymer?
Lipid
Function of fats
energy storage insulation protection
Unsaturated fats
One or more double bonds. Rigid so can't pack close enough to be solid
Saturated fats
no double bonds, solid. Saturated with hydrogen
tryglyceride
composed of three molecules of fatty acid joined to one molecule of glycerol
What are the components of a phospholipid?
Glycerol coupled to a phosphate group and two hydrocarbon. Hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tails
Why do phospholipids form bilayers?
The hydrophilic head associates with water and the hydrophobic fatty acid tails associate with one another
Where's the amino acid?
...
Amino acid
Has a nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens and the carbon skeleton
How do you know if an amino acid is polar, non-polar, or electrically charged?
~Look at the R-group. If there are only carbon hydrogen bonds, then it's non-polar. If there are charges on the r-group, then it is electrically charged. If there are bonds other than carbon-hydrogen, then it is polar
peptide bond
created by dehydration synthesis between 2 amino acids. -special type of covalent bond.
Protein Shape
Primary structure: sequence of amino acids Secondary Structure: H bonds form between different parts of polypeptide chain Tertiary Structure: folding as a result of interactions between r groups form functional domains Quaternary Structure: Soem proteins are made up of more than one po…
primary structure
the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, similar to the sequence of letters that spell out a specific word
Secondary structure
Coils and folds in patterns causing shape. Result of hydrogen bonds between atoms. Alpha helix or betapleated sheet
tertiary structure
interactions between side chains of various amino acids.
Quaternary structure
overall protein structure results from coming together of polypeptide subunits.
How is the shape of a protein stablilized?
Hydrogen bonds
Disulfide bridge
Hold a folded polypeptide together
ionic bond
occurs when a cation bonds to an anion
protein denaturation
the breakdown of proteins that permanently alters their biological activity and which can be caused by excessive heat
Protein functions
Enzymes antibodies structure transport cell communication
Nucleotide
5C sugar ring phosphate amino base
RNA vs DNA: RNA
= is single stranded, has Uracil instead of Thymine, & 2' extra OH on ribose
Deoxyribose
the sugar that makes up the "backbone" of the DNA with phosphate part of nucleotide
ribose
the five-carbon sugar in RNA. Extra O compared to deoxyribose
Base-pair rule
Each base pairs with its complementary base A always with T(or U), G with C Purine(AGony) always base pairs with pyrimidine
Complementary
If you know nucleotide sequence of one strand, you know that of the other
Antiparallel
one side of the double helix is facing upwards and the other side is facing the opposite way.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic organism
Eukaryotic Has membrane-enclosed organelles (the largest which is usually the nucleus) Prokaryotic Simple/smaller DOES NOT contain a nucleus or membrane enclosed organelles
Why are eukaryotic compartmentalized?
Organization, different chemical reactions can take place without interfering with each other
Nuclear Envelope
...
Nuclear Pore Complexes
govern passage of materials in and out of the nucleus ( large proteins, ribosome subunits, mRNA, and tRNA)
Ribosomes
Protein factories, where messenger RNA is translated into proteins
Ribosomes
Protein factories, where messenger RNA is translated into proteins Float around in the cytosol or attached to ER Both euk and prok have them
Ribosomes
Protein factories, where messenger RNA is translated into proteins Float around in the cytosol or attached to ER Both euk and prok have them
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A cellular structure consisting of a complex network of fine, branching tubules and interconnected folded membranes. Sythesizes lipids Produces proteins Most ER products transferred to golgi app
Golgi Apparatus
A stack of flattened, membrane-bound compartments that performs three overlapping functions: secretion, processing, and protein sorting
Where do proteins go after the golgi?
Excreted through plasma membrane, to the plasma membrane itself, lysosome/vacuole through vesicles
How are cell contents moved?
Transferred in vesicles
Lysosome 
Animals. breakdown of macros/organelles. Autophagy: Recycling old cells. Programmed cell destruction Phagocytosis: digestion of particles taken up by the cell. Important or immune system
Vacuole
Plants Sturdiness storage of metabolites sequesters toxins stores compounds like poisons
Why are lysosome products separated?
To not damage rest of the cell
Endomembrane System
The ER+all structures that receive their components from the ER.  nuclear envelope ER Golgi app vacuole plasma membrane
Not part of Endomembrane system
Receive their components from cytosol Peroxisomes Mitochandria Chloroplasts
Structure & Function of Mitochandria
Structure - 2 membranes that contain their own ribosomes and DNA (can make its own protein) Function - converts glucose to energy (sugar to ATP)
Structure and function of chloroplasts?
1. Organelles specilalized for photosynthesis -Stroma – the liquid part of the chloroplast -Thylakoids – structure and function
Endosymbiont Theory
That mitochondria and plastids were formerly small prokaryotes (bacteria) that began living within larger cells
What are the 3 types of cytoskeletal fibers?
1. Intermediate filaments(Intermed) 2. Microtubules(thickest) 3. Microfilaments(Thinnest)
Microtubules Functions
Cellular support Tracks for organelle/vesicle mobement (take the tube) Make spindle during cell division Make flagella and cilia for cell movement
Microfilaments functions
Contractoin of cells Muscle contraction in animals Support for cellular projections
Intermediate Filaments functions
Heavy duty support Reinforce cell shape and nuclear shape Fix organelle position More permanent, strongest
Extracellular Matrix
Meshwork of macromolecules outside plasma membrane Support and anchorage for cells  involved in interaction between cells and signalling to cells
Contact point types Animals
1. Tight juntions:hold cells together and block transport of fluid betw cells.Keeps stuff out of body 2. Desmosomes:hold cells tog but don't block transport of fluid betw cells.Anchor cells to each other. 3. Gap junctions: Compounds transported from one cell to another. only small compo…

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