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What is an argument?
It is the line of reasoning offered in support of a particular claim or thesis.
What is a good argument?
a good argument has acceptable premises and the inference is good
what is a bad argument?
it has improper form and/or unacceptable premises
what is an inductive argument?
shows that the conclusion is reasonable enough to be true if the premises are true.
what is a deductive argument?
proves that the argument is true with guarantee
what is a valid argument?
if the premises are true then the conclusion must be true
what is an invalid argument?
conclusion may be false even if the premises are true.
what is a sound argument?
the BEST of arguments! the form is valid and has true premises
What is the content of an argument?
particular terms, phrases, and clauses
what is the form of the argument?
the underlying logical structure/ arrangement of statement. how the premises are set up
what are premises of an argument?
rationally supported statements that support the conclusion. Two kinds: explicit and implicit
what is an explicit premises?
Reasons or pieces of evidence clearly stated by author
what is an implicit argument?
reasons or pieces of evidence not stated by the author
what is the conclusion?
the claim that the argument's proponent is trying to establish
what is the conditional statement of the argument?
one that the first premise starts with "if p..then q..."
what are the antecedents of the argument?
it states the prior condition in any conditional statement
what is consequent argument
the consequence in a conditional statement
what is the principle of charity?
clarifying an argument, make it as sensible as you possibly can
Who is the Utilitarian philosopher
John Stuart Mill
What is Utilitarianism
Pleasure and the absence of pain are "good" lower, bodily pleasures vs. higher, intellectual pleasures; priority to the higher pleasures pleasure/happiness is the only thing that is good in itself or for its own sake a right action is one that maximizes pleasure and/or minimizes pain f…
2 ways to interpret the Greater Happiness Principle:
1. The right action is whatever action, in this situation, will maximize pleasure and/or minimize pain. 2. The right action is the one that, as a general rule, tends to maximize pleasure and/or minimizes pain. --Act U would sometimes endorse some acts that Rule U would never endorse.
Identifying premises and conclusions
--Premise indicators: because, since, for, seeing that, in view of the fact that,given that, considering that --Conclusionindicators: therefore, so, it followsthat, thus, consequently, accordingly, as a result
deductive argument
all cats have tails. Felix is a cat. Therefore, Felix has a tail.
inductive argument
abortion ends the life of a fetus. A fetus is probably a person. It is always wrong to end the life of a person. Therefore, it is probably wrong to abort a fetus.
Deductive vs. inductive: indicator words
–Deductive: certainly, definitely, necessarily, conclusively, itmust be the case that, must be –Inductive: probably, likely, one would expect, odds are, it isreasonable to suppose, it is plausible to suppose that
What is ethics?
The study of character and decision-making processes that influence our morality
Types of ethical theories
--deontological ethics: laws/rules, such as respecting others --utilitarianism: experiences, such as pleasure and pain --virtue ethics: personal traits, such as excellent character --moral relativism: dominant opinion within a culture
Who was Bentham?
Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) - Act Utilitarian While training in Law, he became concerned with the social conditions of his day. This led him to consider right and wrong in terms of its effects on the majority of the people.
what do bentham and mill agree on?
Bentham and Mill are united in the fact that they think ethics should be about is promoting the most amount of good for as many people as possible.
What do Jeremy Bentham and John Stewart Mill disagree about?
Bentham - pleasure is measured in quantity. Mill - pleasure is measured in quality and quantity.
What is normative theory?
Why someone should do something. People have different values that matter to them, and that influences the way that they act.
act-utilitarianism
the view that the rightness of actions depends solely on the relative good produced by individual actions
rule utilitarianism
This idea maintains that the utilitarian standard should not apply to individuals but to moral codes as a whole.
What are some attractions of utilitarianism?
1. impartiality 2. ability to justify conventional wisdom 3. conflict resolution 4. moral flexibility 5. scope of the moral community ( the argument from marginal cases)
What are some possible responses to JSM's objections of "Utilitarianism"
- When all factors are taken into account, these cases won't come up. - Utilitarians can cite cases where we intuitively believe we should punish the innocent, etc. - Bentham: The concept of individual rights is nonsense. - Mill: We would not endorse a moral theory that didn't allow fo…
divine command theory
"morality comes from god. "morally right"= "commanded by god". "morally wrong"= "forbidden by god". these moral rules are absolute, universal and eternal.
The Euthyphro Dilemma
"is it moral because God commands it, or does God command it because it is moral?"
What is the Euthyphro dilemma? What is it a problem for?
Is an action right because God commands it, or does God command an action because it is right? It is a problem for the Divine Command Theory.
Euthyphro Dilemma, philosophers feelings
Piety and Morality The two horns in the dilemma Deny the omnipotence of God (and thus deny DCT). Deny that God does everything 4 a reason (& thus admit the poss. that God can command us to do horrible acts). Only a dilemma 4 theist.
Kant's reply: the "function of reason" argument
1. Organ in nature are always best fitted to their end 2. Reason is not best fitted to the end of happiness (instinct would be better - those trying hard to be happy are usually less happy than "the common run of people"
what is Kant's argument on universal law?
all moral statements should be general laws, which apply to everyone under all circumstances with no exceptions. Example is telling the truth to the axe murderer. Formula of universal law follows from the imperative to act on reasons.
what is the formula of universal law?
i ought to act only according to that maxim that i can at the same time will to be a universal law
What argument for Ethical Hedonism did we discuss in class? What is the view of Psychological Hedonism? How does it differ from Ethical Hedonism?
Ethical Hedonism- all pleasure is intrinsically good and only pleasure is intrinsically good Psychological Hedonism- all people do value pleasure and only pleasure is good in itself.
what is the formula of humanity as an ends in itself?
act only on that maxim which treats humanity, in your own person or anothers, as an end and never simply as a means to some further goal.
What is an instrumental good for utilitarianism?
money, fame, bravery
What is an intrinsic good for a utilitarianism?
happiness or pleasure
What is Aristotle's Virtue Ethics?
- Moral rightness is acting in accord with the Golden Mean - Acquire happiness through practice of virtues
What was considered the "good life" in Greece according to Aristotle
A "good life" is when a person maintains an active lifestyle and functions well in those ways which are essential and "unique" to humans (depending upon your understanding of "play"
What does the good life entail for aristotle?
eudaimonia and functioning well in the things that are essential in human life, such as the soul chart.
what are the three levels of the human soul?
Nutritive Soul: power to take in nourishment and convert life.(Shared with plants and animals) Sensitive Soul: Our power to desire things, experience sensations. (shared with animals) Rational Soul: Our power to rationally reflect on things.
What is contractarianism?
An act is right if it is permitted by an actual (or historical) (social) contract or agreement. An act is right if it is permitted by a hypothetical (social) contract or agreement.
Thomas Hobbes; who
Philosopher, political thinker; believed that we were born with anamalistic instincts seeding peace to follow (natural state is war) so therefore rights are laid down and a sovereign (Leviathan) leader is followed (God) Social Contract Theory (motive for this is security)
Who is john rawls?
A 20th century American philosopher who formulated a version of welfare-liberal theory arguing FOR income redistribution based on his theory of justice
what is the fundamental law of nature according to Hobbes'?
Every man ought to endeavour peace
What is the State of Nature
when there is no government idea from Thomas Hobbes thought that it is Nasty, brutish, and short
what is the purpose of morality according to Hobbes
one observes morality because it will ultimately be in one's own interest.
What are some attractions of contractarianism, and what are some problems with each version of it?
1. explains and justifies common moral rules 2. explains objectivity of morality 3. explains why we should be moral (& why its sometimes ok to break the rules)
What are some difficulties of contractarianism?
free riders, morality and self-interest conflict
Contractarianism: Rawls
The social contract is a hypothetical contract that would be agreed upon by purely selfish and rational thinkers who are ignorant of their positions in society.
Rawls' Veil of Ignorance
Hypothetical device used to remove any bias. Imagine that we don't know who we are or anything about ourselves that would let us choose principles of justice in our favor.
two fundamental principles that Rawls chooses for original position
1. everyone receives an equal share or basic liberties. 2. social & economic equalities are; attached to position ans offices open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity and not allowed to take advantage of least advantage members of society.
What is its (Thomson's defense of abortion) limitation?
-Thomson’s piece won’t defend all abortions -strongest defense is abortion in self defense (if mother’s life is in danger) -Thomson defended abortion in rape case because the woman is not responsible because she didn’t agree (like kidnapped to support violinist), but was not as convin…
singers argument for equality of all animals
1. something can feel pain of pleasure tintrinsically valuable 2. animals can feel pain and pleasure 3. animalsintrinsically valuable 4.not equality depends upon empirical facts 5. if animals are intrinsically valuable and it is not the case that equality depends upon empirical facts …
Does peter singer believe the principle of equality requires us to treat all sentient creatures the same
all sentient beings do not deserve the same treatment, but they do deserve the same consideration.
all sentient beings do not deserve the same treatment, but they do deserve the same consideration.
Singer is wrong because living things are not mere receptacles of pleasure and pain

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