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Psyc 360: Final
Construals |
The ways in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world
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Naïve realism
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the conviction all of us have that we perceive things "as they really are"
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Fundamental attribution error
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the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors, and to underestimate the role of situational factors
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F.A.E. example
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Bizarre behavior of Jonestown killings --> flawed human beings
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Observational method
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the technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behavior
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Ethnography |
the method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have
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Interjudge reliability
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the level of agreement b/n 2+ people who independently observe and code a set of data
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Archival analysis
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a form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture
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Correlational method
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the technique whereby 2 or more variable are systematically measured and the relationship between them is assessed
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Correlation coefficient
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a statistical technique that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another (e.x., how well you can predict people's weight from their height)
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Surveys
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research in which a representative's sample of people are asked questions about their attitudes or behavior
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Random selection
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a way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample
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Psychological realism
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the extent to which the psychological process triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life
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Field Experiments
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experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory
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Cross-cultural research
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research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether they psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised
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Informed consent
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agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance
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Deception
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misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire
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Institutional review board
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a group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that reviews all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines
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Debriefing
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explaining to participants, at the end of an experiments, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired
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Empathy
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the ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and to experience events and emotions the way that person experiences them
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Empathy-Altruism hypothesis
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the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain
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Carol study
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high-empathy condition- about as many people agreed to help when they would see Carol in class as when they thought they would not see her in class
low-empathy condition- more people agreed to help when they thought they would see Carol in class than when they thought they would nog see her in class |
altruistic personality
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the qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations
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In-group
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the group with which an individual identifies as a member
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Out-group
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any group with which an individual does not identify
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People in interdependent cultures are ...
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less likely to help members out out-groups than people in individualistic cultures
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Nisbett study (1996) "Culture of honor"
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Southerners more likely to think masculine reputation as threatened in comparison to northerners when insulted. thus, more likely to engage in aggressive and dominant behavior
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Amygdala |
an area in the core of the brain that is associated with aggressive behaviors
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Serotonin |
a chemical in the brain that may inhibit aggressive impulses (low levels --> aggression)
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Testosterone
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a hormone associated with aggression
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Men are more or less likely to be more aggressive than woman?
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more; however, girls tend to express their aggressive feelings more covertly-by gossiping, engaging in more backbiting, and spreading false rumors about the target person
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Women
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do commit actos of overt aggression, they tend to feel more guilty or anxiety about such acts than men do
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When a nation is at war...
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its people are more likely to commit aggressive acts towards each other
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When a nation is at war...
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1. weakens the populations inhibitions against aggression
2. leads to imitation of aggression
3. makes aggressive responses more acceptable
4. numbs our sense to the horror of cruelty and destruction, making us less sympathetic toward the victims |
Baron study
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almost 90% drivers honked their horn when the light turned green; when pedestrian with crutches only 57% of the drivers honked their horn (seeing a person on crutches evoked feelings of empathy. In the instance, it infused the consciousness of the potential horn honkers and decreased their urge to be aggressive)
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In-group bias
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positive feelings and special treatment for people we have defined as being part of our in-group and negative feelings and unfair treatment for others simply because we have defined them as being in the out-group
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Discrimination
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treating out-group members unfairly (behavior)
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Stereotyping
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beliefs about the typical group member (traits) (our cognition)
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Prejudice |
disliking members of out-groups (attitudes)
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Out-group homogeneity
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the perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other than they really are, as well as more similar then the members in the in-group are (ex. Florida fans vs. Tennessee fans)
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Ultimate attribution error
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the tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people (Rather than situational attributions)
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Realistic conflict theory
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the idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increases prejudice and discrimination
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Contact hypothesis
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prejudice will decrease when two conditions are met: both groups are of equal status and both share a common goal
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When contact reduces prejudice
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1. mutual dependence
2. common goal
3. equal status
4. informal, interpersonal contact
5. multiple contacts
6. social norms of equality |
Nihilism
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no knowledge is possible
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Principle of multiple determinism
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social behavior is influenced by many factors
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Magic bullet fallacy
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mistakenly concluding that some event was caused by a single factors or cause
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Sources of knowledge
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1. Appeals to authority
2. observations
3. reason |
Probabilistic causation
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Event A increases the likelihood of Event B
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Social cognition
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How do people think about and make sense of other people
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Study: Making copies
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Measuring compliance; when given an excuse compliance increases
1. Control group: "May I use the copy machine?" -60%
2. "In a rush"- 94%
3. "Need to make copies"- 93% |
Solving the paradox of social cognition
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1. Controlled thinking (conscious, voluntary, effortful, limited capacity)
2. Automatic thinking (unconscious, involuntary, effortless, and unlimited capacity) |
Heuristics
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shortcuts that people use to make judgements quickly and efficiently
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Representative heuristic
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Our tendency to make judgements about whether people being to a category based on how similar they are to a typical member of the category
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Availability heuristic
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our tendency to make decisions based on how easily relevant info comes to mind
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Schemas
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people's set of assumptions and expectations about the social world and the people in it
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the bloomer's study
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-Fail IQ test
-feedback to teachers (only)
-Spring IQ test: kids set to bloom, did
-The catch: IQ results same as other students (no--> 10%, yes--> 25%)
-Expectation --> bump |
Self-fulfilling prophecy
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phenomenon by which inaccurate expectations ultimately come true (Ex. bloomer's study)
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Mirror mirror on the wall study
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-Non-sexist men with sexist statements vs. nonsexist men with neutral statements
-Task #1: recite simple statements and record ("A woman's place is in the home"
-Task #2: sit in room with six tables and mirror
-Sense of guilt
-75% of men with sexist statements sat away from mirror |
The bystander effect
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Notice the event --> interpret event as emergency --> taking charge --> decide how to help --> help
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