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Psyc 295: Chapter 7
Bivariate associations/correlations
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an association that involves exactly two variables
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Association claims are _______ not ________.
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measured; manipulated
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An association claim describes the relationship found between _____ __________ variables
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two measured
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After recording data, the next step in an association claim is to describe the relationship between the two variables using _________- and the _______ ______________ (_)
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scatterplots; correlation coefficient (r)
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Negative r means that the relationship is __________: high scores on one variable go with _____ scores on the other
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negative |
R has two qualities: _________ and __________
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direction; strength
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Direction refers to whether the association is...
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positive, negative, or zero
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Strength of r refers to how closely related the ____ _____________ are or how close r is to ____ or _____
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two variables; 1; -1
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r = 0.10
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small, weak
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r = 0.30 (or -0.30)
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medium, moderate
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r = 0.50 (or -0.50)
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large, strong
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When a variable is yes-or-no (i.e. employed? yes or no) is called a _________ variable
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categorical
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A categorical variable is when values..
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fall in either one category or another
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A quantitative variable is when both variables in an association are measured on ___________ ________
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quantitative scales
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Quantitative variables are best represented by/on a
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scatterplot |
When one or more of the variables is categorical, the researchers will plot the results as a _____________
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bar graph
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Bar graphs show
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the average
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In bar graphs you examine the difference between the __________ _______ to look for an association
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average scores
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When one or more variables in an association claim is categorical, researchers use 3 different statistics ___ ________, ______-_______ ___________, and/or ________ ____________
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t test, point-biserial correlation, phi coefficient
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The t test tests whether the difference between means is ________ _______
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statistically significant
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A point-biserial correlation is intended for evaluating the association between ___________ and _____________
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one categorical variable; one quantitative variable
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A phi coefficient is designed to evaluate the association between ____ _____________ _________
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two categorical variables
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An association claim is not characterized by a kind of _________ or _________
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statistic; graph
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An association claim is characterized by a study design in which both variables are
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measured |
At minimum, how many variables are there in an association claim?
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2 |
What characteristic of a study's variables makes a study correlational?
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both variables are measured
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When do researchers typically use a bar graph, as opposed to a scatterplot to display correlational data?
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when one of the variables is correlational
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When interrogating association claims, the two most important validities to interrogate are ___________ validity and ___________ validity
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construct; statistical
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An association claim describes the relationship between two measured variables, so you should ask about the construct validity of ______ __________
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each variable
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Construct validity is how..?
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well each variable is measured
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When you ask about the _______ validity, you are asking about factors that might have affected the scatterplot, correlation coefficient (r), bar graph, or difference score that led to the claim
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statistical |
To interrogate statistical validity you need to consider the ______ ____ and _______ ________, _______ ______ or outliers, and whether a zero relationship might be ______________
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effect size, statistical significance; subgroups; curvilinear
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Effect size describes the __________ of the association
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strength |
Stronger effect size means that more ________ _________- of one variable can be made
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accurate predictions
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Effect sizes indicate how _________ the result is- that is a larger effect size is often considered ____ important than a small one
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important; more
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A small effect size can be ___________ (advil)
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important |
However, if not as extreme as light or death an effect size of 0.03 might be _________ in importance
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negligible |
Obtaining a correlation coefficient, r, establishes the direction and the strength ( _____ ______) of the relationship and determines whether the correlation is __________ ____________
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effect size; statistically significant
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Determining statistical significance is a process of ____________
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inference
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The sample's result usually ________ what is happening in the population, but not always
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mimics |
_______ _____ calculations helps researchers evaluate the probability that results really are zero
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statistical significance
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Statistical significance calculations provide a _________ _________
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probability estimate (p or sig)
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If the probability ( p ) associated with the result is very small—that is, less than ___%—we know that the result is very unlikely to have come from a “____-association” population.
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5; zero
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p = 0.05
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high - nonsignificant
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Statistical significance depends on _________ and __________
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effect size; sample size
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When p is small (under 5%) the result is __________ to have come from a zero association
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unlikely
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Spurious- the overall relationship is attributable only to __________ mean differences or ________- within the sample
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systematic; subgroups
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To analyze curvilinear relationship use a __________ model
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quadratic
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A quadratic model tests the correlation between one variable and the ________ of the other
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square |
Causal temptation is an automatic tendency to make _______ inferences from any claim we read
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causal |
To establish causation a study must fulfill three criteria:
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covariation, temporal precedence, internal validity
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Temporal precedence rule is sometimes called the _____________ problem because we dont know what variable came first
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directionality
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Covariance
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a <---> b
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Temporal precedence
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a--->b or b---> a
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Internal validity
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a <--> c <--> b
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To interrogate external validity of association claim what matters is the..
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way the sample was selected
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When a relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of a third variable that third variable is called a..
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moderator |
In correlation research, moderators can inform..
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external validity
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