View
- Term
- Definition
- Both Sides
Study
- All (113)
Shortcut Show
Next
Prev
Flip
EXSS 181: EXAM 1
What is sports and exercise psychology?
|
the scientific study of human behavior in sport and exercise, and the practical application of that knowledge
|
What do sports psychologists do?
|
analyze the mental functioning that goes on within athletes during training and before/during competition
Conduct research, teaching, and consulting
|
What are the two major objectives of sports and exercise psychology research?
|
1. understand the effects of psychological factors on physical activity and performance
2. understand the effects of participating in physical activity on psychological development, health, and well-being
|
What is the underlying theme of sport psychology research?
|
Behavior is a function of both the Person and his/her Environment; It is important to understand both the person and the context
|
What are the ways of knowing how to do something?
|
Common sense, practical experience, and science
|
Describe how common sense is a way of knowing and its strengths and limitations
|
intuition, speculation
strengths: easy and quick
limitations: not based on experience or data so this has the greatest chance of being wrong
|
Describe how practical experiences are a way of knowing and what are its strengths and limitations?
|
observations/case studies
strengths: holistic, immediate, innovative
limitations: fails to explain mechanisms and is susceptible to bias
|
Describe how science is a way knowing and what are its strengths and limitations?
|
systematic, controlled, empirical investigations of relationships
strengths: reliable, "objective and unbiased"
limitations: reductionistic, slow to evolve, sometimes not practical
|
Describe the scientific method
|
1. Describe the problem (what is the purpose; identify the independent and dependent variables)
2. formulate hypotheses (which must be testable)
3. gather data
4. analyze and interpret the results
|
Who is Norman Triplett?
|
A key figure in the history of social and sport & exercise psychology. He studied the social facilitation of bikers and tested whether bikers rode faster when groups than alone
|
Who is Coleman Griffith?
|
Considered the "Father of Modern Sport Psychology". He opened the first sport psychology research lab and was one of the first people to do his kind of research with athletes.
|
What is personality?
|
The pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguishes one person from another and that persists over time and situations. It is about the characteristics that describe somebody. It is supposedly relatively stable and consistent
|
Describe Hollander's Model of Personality
|
At the bottom of the triangle is internal psychological care--> the most internal and constant form of personality
In the middle is typical responses
At the top of the pyramid is role-related behavior--> the most external and dynamic (subject to change) form of personality
|
What is the trait approach in personality?
|
trait theories imply that traits are consistent and generalizable. Thus, we expect behavior to be similar from one situation to the next and we expect people to behave similarly across contexts
|
What is the problem with the trait approach?
|
It is somewhat weak in terms of prediction of behavior because there are certain situations where the environment may get you to do something that may be different from your general personality
|
Describe the Iceberg Profile
|
Athletes exhibit low levels of maladaptive traits, while the more successful athletes exhibit high levels of traits that may help with competition
|
What are situational approaches
|
personality is shaped by interactions with the environment. People may learn behavior for specific situations (behaviorism)
|
Describe the two situation approaches
|
1. behaviorism: people learn behaviors for specific situations via rewards and punishments
2. Social Learning Theory: people learn behaviors for certain situations via observational learning/modeling (Bobo study)
|
What is the Interactionist Approach?
|
Person factors (e.g., traits) and situation factors interact to determine behavior
|
What are some problems with using personality tests in sport?
|
using clinical tests that focus on abnormality to study average population-->something said might mean something very different to one population than another
not sufficient evidence of reliability and validity
some questions of personality are easy to manipulate so they seem better on paper
social desirability and some psychological skills can be learned
does not account for non-psychological factors which affect sport performance
not recommended to use personality tests to make decisions about sport participation (e.g., making the team)
|
What is motivation?
|
The direction (approach/avoid or attraction) and intensity (how much effort, persistence) of effort
|
What are attributions?
|
Interpretations or explanations individuals give for success or failure
|
What is the main thing motivation is influenced by?
|
Attributions |
What are some commonly cited reasons for perceived success or failure?
|
personal ability, personal effort, opponent's ability, opponent's effort, luck, referee decisions, facility conditions, weather
|
How do you think about whether your attributions are stable or unstable?
|
Think whether the reason for your success/failure would make you successful/unsuccessful again in the future consistently
|
How do you think about whether your attributions are internal or external?
|
Think whether the source of your reason for being successful/unsuccessful was something inherent to you, or was it from some other source
|
How do you think about whether your attributions are controllable or uncontrollable?
|
Think whether the reason for your success was something you could control or not
|
What are the three characteristics of attributions?
|
stability (stable/unstable)
causality (internal/external)
Control (controllable/uncontrollable)
|
What are the expected psychological results for stable and unstable attributions?
|
stable- greater expectation of the same outcome happening again
unstable- lower expectation of the same outcome happening again
|
What are the expected psychological results for internal and external attributions?
|
internal- greater pride (for success) or greater shame (for failure)
external- lower pride (for success) or lower shame (for failure)
|
What are the expected psychological results for controllable and uncontrollable attributions?
|
in one's control- greater motivation
out of one's control- lower motivation
|
What is self-serving bias?
|
making attributions that help you increase or maintain your self-esteem and confidence. For success, these are internal and stable attributions. For failure, these are external and unstable attributions
|
What is learned helplessness?
|
A psychological state where people have learned that failure is inevitable and out of their control. These people tend to attribute failure to uncontrollable, stable causes. The key outcome is that they have learned that no matter how hard they try, they can't succeed, so they stop trying
|
What are the underlying assumptions of the achievement goal theory?
|
1. People are motivated to demonstrate competence
2. motivation is influenced by the personal meaning one assigns to perceived success and failure
|
What are the two main ways to define success/failure?
|
1. relative to other people
2. relative to your own past performance
|
What are the characteristics of ego (outcome)?
|
It is a result of winning, beating a rival, coming in a top place, doing just as well as other but putting in less effort. A limited number of people can be successful and success is less in the participant's control. Usually involves competing against others.
|
What are the characteristics of task (mastery)?
|
Personal best time/performance, learning or improvement, solving a problem, working hard. It is possible for all participants to be successful and success is more in the participant's control. Usually involves competing against yourself.
|
Are Task and Ego perspectives considered to be independent or dependent of each other?
|
Independent. Therefore, you can have some level of one combined with some level of the other and they do not affect each other.
|
Why does it matter that task and ego are independent of each other?
|
Research has shown links between the way that people evaluate success/failure in a particular task at a particular moment in time, and their motivational, emotional, and behavioral outcomes
|
What are characteristics of task goal involvement?
|
choosing learning opportunities at risk of displaying mistakes, high effort, persist in the face of failure, continue to problem solve when encountering failure
|
What are characteristics of ego goal involvement?
|
Avoiding learning opportunities that have risk of displaying error, put in just enough effort to socially compare well or disguise poor ability, give up in the face of failure, fewer problem-solving efforts in failure situations.
|
What is the problem situation of task and ego goal involvement?
|
When a person is high ego oriented and low task oriented. This is only good when somebody wins all time, which rarely ever happens
|
What are dispositional goal orientations?
|
How the individual typically defines success or failure
|
What are the two concepts of ability possible?
|
undifferentiated concept of ability- an inability or a choice not to differentiate between ability and effort (e.g., working hard=effort); usually children
differentiated concept of ability- a person is able to, and chooses to, differentiated between ability and effort; usually by 12-13 years old
|
What is the motivational climate?
|
Athletes' perceptions of achievement goals promoted by significant others (e.g., coaches, parents, etc...)
|
What is the mastery climate?
|
An emphasis on learning, effort, individual improvement, and cooperation tend to evoke task involvement
|
What is the performance (competitive) climate?
|
An emphasis on competition, winning, and social comparison tend to evoke ego involvement
|
What are ways of enhancing the motivational climate?
|
Target the task, authority, recognition/reward, grouping, evaluation, or timing
|
What are the key assumptions of the competence motivation theory?
|
1. perceptions of control (over whether one can learn and perform skills) work along with self-worth and competence evaluations to influence motivation
2. perceptions of control, competence, self-esteem do not influence motivation directly
3. Rather, these perceptions influence effective or emotional states that in turn influence motivation
|
What are the stages of competence motivation?
|
1. autonomous competence
2. social comparison
3. integrated stage
|
What is the autonomous competence stage?
|
Occurs roughly before the age of 4. In this stage, children focus on mastering their environment through self-testing abilities. At this stage, children rarely compare themselves with others
|
What is the social comparison stage?
|
Begins at approximately 5 years old. At this stage, children focus on comparing their performance with that of others
|
What is the integrated stage?
|
There is no typical age for this stage and it can occur at different times for different individuals. This stage involves both social comparison and autonomous achievement strategies. An understanding exists for when it is okay to compete and when more self-referenced standards are appropriate
|
What is arousal?
|
An "intensity" dimension of motivation at a particular moment. It is neither positive or negative and included physiological, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions. Since it is a mental and physical activation state, it can be marked by higher heart rate, respiration, and sweating
|
What is anxiety and what are the two types of anxiety?
|
A negative emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension, and increased physiological activation.
cognitive anxiety- a mental component; defined by worrying, distraction, and situation-irrelevant thoughts
somatic anxiety- a physiological component; defined by changes in heart rate, sweaty palms, or muscle tension
|
What are state and trait anxiety?
|
trait anxiety- the tendency to become anxious in stressful situations. It is an acquired behavioral tendency that is part of one's personality
state anxiety- the actual apprehension and tension felt at a given time. This is a changing mood state
|
What are some signs of state anxiety?
|
cold, clammy hands, need to urinate frequently, profuse sweating, negative self-talk, dazed look in the eyes, feeling ill/headache, cotton mouth, difficulty sleeping, constantly better performance in non-competitive situations
|
Why does anxiety affect performance?
|
1. increased muscle tension and coordination difficulties
2. attention and concentration changes
narrowing of attention
attending to inappropriate cues
performance worries and situation-irrelevant thoughts
|
What is the drive theory?
|
The idea that the relationship between anxiety and performance is direct and linear. This theory shows that the more aroused you are, the better your performance will be, however there has to be some point where a certain level of arousal will not increase your performance at all
|
What is the Inverted U-hypothesis?
|
Dissatisfied with Drive theory, many sport psychologists posited a different relationship between anxiety and performance. They argues that performance is optimal at a moderate level of arousal and falls off if athletes are not aroused enough or too aroused. Each person has a different optimal level of arousal
|
What are the Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF)?
|
This differed from previous theories in two ways:
1. the optimal level of arousal does not always occur at the midpoint
2. One's optimal level of state anxiety rests not at a single point, but a bandwidth
|
What is the Multidimensional Theory?
|
States that somatic and cognitive anxiety influence performance differently
cognitive anxiety has a negative linear relationship with performance
somatic anxiety has an inverted-U relationship with performance and there is a certain level of somatic anxiety which can actually benefit performance
|
What is Catastrophe Theory?
|
explains the interaction of cognitive and somatic anxiety and the combined relationship on athletic performance
as arousal increases, performance increases to a point, but if it goes beyond an optimal level, performance drops off sharply as the athletes go over the edge
returning to an optimal level after a catastrophe requires dramatically reducing anxiety below the normal optimal level and then working back up to optimal levels
|
What is the Reversal Theory?
|
Arousal affects performance based on interpretation.
ex. feeling "butterflies" in your stomach and a tingling in your hands and feet as you jog onto the field of competition
your interpretation of this feeling could affect your performance
|
What are things you can do to help with anxiety and performance?
|
tailor coaching strategies to individuals- understand which athletes' arousal needs to be enhanced, reduced, or maintained
develop performers' confidence- help them feel in control of the situation and instill a positive approach to mistakes and losing
athletes: train yourself to cope with stress and manage psychological arousal
|
What is stress?
|
a relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person and endangers his/her well-being. Typically an individual enters a situation where there is environmental constraint and they think of whether the situation could potentially damage the well-being
|
What is stress a product of?
|
the dynamic and transactional relationship between the person and the environment. Since stress is dynamic, we can intervene and because stress is transactional, this intervention can occur in the person or the environment
|
What is the order of the stress model?
|
1. Person-Environment Transaction
2. Cognitive Appraisal
Primary
Secondary
3. Coping
Problem-focused
Emotion-focused
4. Stress/Emotion Outcome
|
What is primary appraisal?
|
Think about what is at stake and whether it is relevant to your values, goals, beliefs, and self
|
What is secondary appraisal?
|
Think of what can be done and think can you manage, prevent, or adapt to the encounter
|
What is cognitive appraisal?
|
An evaluation of whether the encounter has significance for the person's well-being
|
What is coping?
|
Constantly changing the cognitive and behavioral efforts used to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person
|
What are the two types of coping?
|
Problem-focused coping- efforts directed at changing the transaction ("try to solve the problem"); trying to learn strategies of techniques
Emotion-focused coping- efforts directed at changing the emotional response without changing the transaction("manage your feelings about the problem"); how you manage feelings about situations
|
What is the Sport Competition Process?
|
The idea being that there has to be an objective, competitive situation for subjective situation to exist. Individuals have perceptions of competitive situations and see situations in a certain way which determines how they will respond to it
|
What are the four components of the sport competition process?
|
1.Objective Competitive situation
2. Subjective competitive situation
3. Response
4. Consequences |
What are the characteristics of the Objective Competitive Situation?
|
Standards are set by an individual's past performance, and idealized performance, and another individual's performance. To have a competitive situation, there must be a criteria for comparison that is known by at least one other person who is in a position to evaluate the performance
|
What are the characteristics of the Subjective Competitive Situation?
|
Individual's perceptions, interpretations, and appraisals of the competitive situation. Includes situational factors (e.g., game importance, opponent) and individual differences (e.g., past experiences, self-esteem, trait anxiety, competitiveness)
|
What are the characteristics of Response in the sport competition process?
|
Whether an individual approaches a competitive situation and how hes or she does so:
behavioral: choice of an easy, optimal, or difficult standard (or to avoid competition)
physiological: arousal level (HR, skin conductance, blood pressure, perspiration)
psychological: state anxiety, self-talk, concentration, self-confidence
|
What are the characteristics of consequences in respect to the sport competition process?
|
The longer-term effects/outcomes of the competitive process:
performance: successful or unsuccessful (outcome, technique)
attitudes: self-perceptions, feelings of enjoyment, motivation (continue or discontinue)
health: sleeping patterns, eating patterns, susceptibility to injury, substance abuse
|
What is competition?
|
A social process that occurs when rewards after given to people on the basis of how their performances compare with the performances of others doing the same task or participating on the same event
|
What is cooperation?
|
A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievements of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal
|
What is Zero-Sum competition?
|
A situation where rewards are distributed unequally based on performance outcome. The problem is that it does not consider the individual's perceptions of the competition itself or the win/loss outcome
|
What is Social Evaluation in competition?
|
Comparison of performance to a standard, in the presence of at least one other person, who is aware of the competition goal, and can evaluate the performance
|
Where does research show advantages of cooperative experiences?
|
task involvement, intrinsic motivation, improved interpersonal relations, better communication and sharing, and in some situations, better performance
|
What is intrinsic motivation?
|
When you are motivated to do an activity because you just inherently enjoy the activity
|
What are the five components that cooperative learning must contain?
|
1. positive interdependence (promoting situations where individuals have to involve others in order to carry out goals)
2. face-to-face interaction
3. individual accountability
4. social skills training
5. opportunities for group evaluation
|
What is modeling/observational learning?
|
the cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes that result from observing others
|
What are some types of modeling effects?
|
skill/behavior acquisition: acquire motor coordination information and develop strategies to solve movement problem
psychological responses: inhibition-observe injury-induce anxiety; disinhibition- gain confidence
response facilitation (behaviors already learned): cheerleaders (more effective to show and tell how to do something)
|
What are the two components of vicarious modeling?
|
maximize model/observer similarity
age, gender, competence
coping vs. mastery
model verbalizations
problem solving
self-confidence
positive vs. negative affect
task difficulty
|
What was the take home message of the Weiss et al. (1998) study with children swimming?
|
Using peer models can enhance motor skill and psychological outcomes when teaching new, anxiety-producing activities
|
What are the components of Bandura's social learning theory?
|
observer processes modeled information and uses it to guide behavior attempts
there are 4 processes fundamental to success
attention
retention
motor reproduction
motivation
|
What are the things to remember with attention?
|
get the person' attention: eliminate distraction and explain the importance of the skill
focus on the key points
don't overload with information: limit to 3 or 4 key points and start with the big picture and get more specific
consider the age of the participant:
|
What are the things to remember for retention?
|
attending does not mean they will remember
mental practice helps: close eyes and picture the demonstration, summarize key points, repeat key points aloud, and name or label important points
clear and concise instruction
immediate practice
|
What are the things to remember for motor reproduction?
|
turning thoughts into action
check lead-up skills
difficult skills-break into parts
provide plenty of demonstrations and practice
|
What are the things to remember for motivation?
|
in the immediate sense: provide some rationale/connection why skill is important for them, minimize barriers to doing the skill (e.g., fear)
|
What are the 4 ways of measuring the degree of learning?
|
1. verbal production
2. recognition
3. comprehension test
4. actual performance
|
What are the key issues in production of observed behaviors?
|
outcome vs. process
recall vs. recognition
learning vs. performance
|
What is feedback?
|
information that is obtained about a behavior
intrinsic- visual, kinesthetic, tactile
augmented- external source (coach, video)
Functions of feedback:
informational
motivational
reinforcement
|
What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?
|
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior that precedes it.
Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior that precedes it
|
What are the two approaches to influencing behavior?
|
The positive approach and the negative (aversive) approach
|
What is the positive approach?
|
strengthens desired behavior by motivating participants to perform or exhibit them, and by reinforcing the behaviors when they occur
focuses on correct performance
praise, encouragement, and instruction are key elements
|
What is the negative or aversive approach?
|
attempts to eliminate undesirable behaviors through punishment and criticism
focuses on performance errors or negative behaviors
fear of failure is a key problem
|
What were the major findings of Horn's 1985 study of 13-15 year old female softball players and their coaches?
|
players improvement over season predicted perceived physical competence
coaches' behaviors influence perceptions of competence and performance expectations above and beyond seasonal skill improvement
more frequent positive reinforcement associated with lower perception of competence and success expectations
more frequent criticism associated with higher competence perceptions and expectations
|
What are the best ways for implementing behavior change?
|
define and list desirable and undesirable behaviors in measurable terms
structure the environment to optimally challenge athlete
determine significant reinforcers
apply feedback and reinforcement immediately and contigently
success- encourage + information
failure- sandwich approach
|
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
|
intrinsic motivation- behaviors demonstrated voluntarily, in the absence of constraints imposed by others; performing an activity for its own sake
extrinsic motivation- behaviors displayed for the purpose of achieving some end and not for its own sake
|
What are the components of intrinsic motivation?
|
to gain something or to learn
to accomplish something or master the task
to experience pleasure, fun, excitement
|
What is the cognitive evaluation theory?
|
critical factor is not the reward, but the person's interpretation of the reward
|
What are the two aspects of rewards?
|
controlling aspect-
more controlling=undermine intrinsic motivation
affects autonomy perceptions
informational aspect-
more informational=enhance intrinsic motivation
affects competence perceptions
|
What are the ways of encouraging intrinsic motivation?
|
create an environment that meets people's needs for:
autonomy- the need to perceive that one has choice and are in control of one's own behavior
competence- the need to feel effective at achieving desired outcomes
relatedness- the need to authentically connect with other and feel involved in the social context
|
What are the three types of communication?
|
1. interpersonal communication- meaningful exchange between 2 people
2. nonverbal communication- nonverbal cues
3. intrapersonal communication- communication with ourselves ("self-talk")
|
What are the roles in the communication process?
|
sender- decision to send a message and encoding of message
channel- message transmitted
receiver- decoding of message and internal response to message
|
What are the 3 types of listening related to receiving messages?
|
1. active listening
2. supportive listening
3. aware listening
|
What are the 3 steps to the "sandwich approach"?
|
1. positive, sincere statement (find something done correctly)
2. corrective information (future-oriented instructions)
3. positive encouraging remark (compliment)
|