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PSYC 4600: EXAM 2 REVIEW
What is the definition of evolution?
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Living things change over time.
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Does evolution begin with Darwin, yes or no?
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No
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What did Erasmus Darwin (grandfather to Charles Darwin and Francis Galton) believe in and how did he test this theory?
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All warm-blooded animals evolved from a single living filament.
Driver tested floors.
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What did Jean Baptiste-Lamarok believe in?
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Theory of evolution that emphasized modifications to bodily form to adapt.
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Theory of evolution that emphasized modifications to bodily form to adapt.
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That the Earth has passed through various stages of development.
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What was the Zeitgeist during the Evolution Revolution?
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Scientists learning more about the species that inhabit earth (biology)
Centuries of accepting biblical explanations leaves questions -How could Noah fit so many species into the arc?
Examples like Jenny show that animals can be similar to human beings.
Discovery of fossils that didn't match living species.
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What was the Evolution Revolution about, and what are some examples of this?
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Unceasing intellectual and scientific change
Examples of changes:
-Industrial revolution
-Values
-Cultural Norms
-Relationships
-Migration
-Mechanical spirit
-Politics
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What are the fundamental points from "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection"?
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Natural selection of traits best suited for the environment.
Survival of the fittest: Elimination of those not fit for the environment.
Variation is the law of heredity.
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In "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" finches' beaks were discussed. What happened with the finches, and what was discovered about evolution?
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In just one generation, weather conditions cause changes in beak size.
Evidence that evolution can be rapid.
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What was the nickname for Thomas Henry Huxley and who did he debate with about evolution? Why didn't Darwin speak about evolution?
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Darwin preferred to avoid controversy, convenient illness.
1860 Oxford evolution debate, Huxley "Darwin's Bulldog" vs Bishop Samuel Wilberforce.
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What did Bishop Samuel Wilberforce say to Thomas Henry Huxley?
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Evolution is just a hypothesis.
Unbridgeable gap between humans and apes.
Egyptian mummies showed humans were unchanged over thousands of years.
Wilberforce chafed Huxley and asked whether he had a preference for the descent from a Gorilla being on the father's side or mother's side.
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How did Huxley respond to Bishop Wilberforce?
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Huxley said he would sooner claim kindred with an Ape than with a man like the Bp, who made so ill a use of his wonderful speaking powers to try and burke, by a display of the truth, and reminded him that on questions of physical science, authority' had always been bowled out by investigation, as witness astronomy and geology.
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What was Darwin's influence on Psychology?
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Focus on animal psychology
Emphasis on the functions rather than the structure of consciousness.
Acceptance of methodology and data from many fields.
Focus on the description and measurement of individual differences.
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What did Francis Galton believe in?
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Genius is inherited
Eminent men have eminent sons (saw intelligence as 100% biological).
Eugenics to foster the improvement of inherited qualities in humans.
Mental inheritance and individual differences.
Evolution's impact on society.
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Who was Quetelet?
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Belgian mathematician.
Physical measurements cluster around average.
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How did Francis Galton impact statistical methods?
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Galton applied normal curve to mental characteristics.
-M and SF most useful for measuring data.
-Used correlation, graphed the correlation coefficient.
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Who was Karl Pearson and what did he develop?
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Student of Francis Galton.
Developed current formula for correlation coefficient
-Worry: Footnote to formula.
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What are Mental tests?
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Test of motor skills and sensory capacities; intelligence tests use more complex measures of mental abilities.
Galton = concept, Cattell = term
Assumed intelligence can be measured with motor capacity
Invented instruments to measure motor capacity.
Modern review:
-Good psychometric properties
-Development in Galton's time slightly slower.
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What is Social Darwinism?
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The system of philosophy that brought Herbert Spencer acclaim.
Premise-The development of all aspects of the universe is evolutionary, including human behavior and social inclusions.
Proposal-Allow "survival of the fittest" to operate freely and let the characteristics, institutions, and people who are not fit to survive,to die out.
-The state should not interfere. This was vastly popular in America.
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Why was Social Darwinism vastly popular in America?
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Social Darwinism is compatible with American values and individualistic spirit.
-Free enterprise
-Self-sufficiency
-Independence from government regulation.
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What is Synthetic Philosophy?
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Herbert Spencer's idea that knowledge and experience can be explained in terms of evolutionary principles.
"Synthetic" as in "combining", not "artificial"
The mind exists in its present form because of past and continuing efforts to adapt to various environments.
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Who was William James?
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American precursor to functional psychology
Didn't find functional psychology
Presented ideas that were pervading American psychology.
Inspired, yet didn't train other psychologists.
Criticized for his interests in mental telepathy,clairvoyance, spiritualism, communication with the dead at seances.
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What is Neurasthenia?
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A condition of American nervousness-James: "Americanits"
Insomnia, hypochondria, headache, skin rash, nervous exhaustion and "brain collapse"
"Anybody who was anybody had neurasthenia"
Some thought it was related to clocks and increasing time pressures.
Women told to lay in bed and to gain weight on a high-fat diet and men told to travel, have adventures, and have a lot of physical exercise.
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What was the first act of free will? (William James's idea)
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To believe in free will.
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What was William James interested in?
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Accepted position at Harvard, but after one year took time off to visit Italy and didn't return.
Became interested in effects of certain mind-altering chemicals
-Nitrous oxide ("laugh gas") and amyl nitrite affects oxygen delivery to brain and can cause a rush.
-Body changes mind.
Taught first psychology course at Harvard
-the first psychology lecture he attended was his own.
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What was the book that William James wrote, what did people (including himself) think of it, and what happened as a result of these thoughts?
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"The Principles of Psychology"
S&S: "It is still read today by people who are not required to do do"
Wundt: "It is literature, it is beautiful, but it is not psychology".
James didn't like his book either.
Lost interest in psychology and returned to philosophy.
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Who said "Psychology is the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions"?
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William James
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What did William James believe in?
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Physical substructures
-He rebelled against Wundt's approach
Stream of consciousness
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What is the Stream of consciousness?
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The idea that consciousness is a continually flowing process and any attempt to reduce it to elements will distort it.
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What is Pragmatism?
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The doctrine that the validity of ideas is measured by their practical consequences.
It's true if it works.
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What is the theory of emotions and who made it?
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William James
Contradicted current thinking about the nature of emotional stress
The arousal of the physical response precedes the appearance of the emotion.
Later lead to the "James-Lange theory of emotions".
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Who was Mary Whiton Calkins?
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James' student
James: "I hope and trust that your application will break the barrier. I will do what I can".
Completed doctoral at Harvard, but wasn't allowed to graduate Finally Columbia University granted her an honorary degree.
Developed the paired-associate technique used in the study of memory. First woman president of APA
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What was the Variability hypothesis and who made it?
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The notion that men show a wider range and variation of physical and mental development than women; the abilities of women are seen as more average.
Mary Whiton Calkins.
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What were some oppositions to women getting educated?
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-Education would cause women physical and emotional damage
-Disrupt the mental cycle and weaken maternal urge
-If educated at all "should be educated to motherhood"
-Would produce "monstrous brains and puny bodies; abnormally active cerebellum and abnormally weak digestion; flowing thought and constipated bowels.
-"Identical education of the sexes is a crime before God and humanity."
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What was Granville Stanley Hall's theory?
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Evolutionary theory
-Believed that the normal growth of the mind involved a series of evolutionary stages
-Method: Questionnaires
-Recapitulation Theory
-Adolescence controversial because they focus on sex.
-Ernst's Haeckel's controersial embryo drawings (1892).
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What is the Recapitulation Theory?
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Hall's idea that the psychological development of children repeats the history of the human race.
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What were the criticisms of functionalism, and where did they come from?
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They came mostly from structuralism
-Any approach to psychology that deviated from the introspective analysis of the mind into elements could not truly be called psychology.
-Criticisms of the functional psychologists' interest in practical concerns.
Ongoing dispute between seeing psychology as a pure science or as an applied science.
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What was the FDA Raid targeting Coca-Cola about?
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Drug bust for hazardous and habit-forming substance: Caffeine.
Forbidden under new FDA regulations.
Substance: syrup base for Coca-cola
Coca-Cola recruits Harry Hollingworth to conduct research.
Hollingworth insists on high ethical standards
Results: No harmful effects or significant declines in performance were found.
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Was Wundt's psychology suited for the American Zeitgeist?
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No
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Did Wundt influence American psychologists?
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No |
_____ evolved into functionalism
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Structuralism
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Is applied psychology a practical psychology?
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Yes
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What year did American Psychology grow?
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1900
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What was some of the growth of American Psychology in the 1900's?
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Increase in student interest
1893 Chicago World's Fair: Psychology is put on display with research instruments and a demonstration testing labratory
1904 Lousiana Purchase Exposition
-E.B. Tichener, C.Lloyd Morgen, G.Stanley Hall, and John B. Watson.
America embraced psychology with enthusiasm
Today: U.S. <5% of world population, yet more psychological research than the rest of the world.
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Who was James McKeen Cattell?
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Admired Galton's emphasis on measurement and statistics
Became one of the first American psychologists to stress quantification, ranking, and ratings
Interested in Galton's work in eugenics
-Argued for the sterilization of delinquent and "defective persons"
-Argued for offering incentives to healthy, intelligent people if they would intermarry
-Promised his 7 children 1,000 each if they would marry children of college professors.
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Who was Alfred Binet?
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Independently wealthy
Entered Psychology
"...quite by accident and who failed miserably, repeatedly, and publicly until he created the exams that are the foundation of intelligence".
While recovering from a nervous breakdown at 22
Wrote books, articles, and plays.
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What did Binet believe in, and measure?
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He disagreed with Galton and Cattell's approach
-Cognitive functions more appropriate measure of intelligence
Assessed memory, attention, imagination, and comprehension
Used his two young daughters as research subjects
Sensorimotor tests:Children - adults.
Mental age-developed several tests. Coined the phrase.
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What is Mental Age?
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The age at which children of average ability can perform certain tasks.
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What did Lewis M. Terman study with and what did he invent?
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Studied with Hall
Invented a test of the intelligence quotient.
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What is the Intelligence quotient (IQ)
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A number denoting a person's intelligence, determined by the following formula: mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.
Now: Standard score (M =100, SD = 15).
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What year did the U.S. enter the Great War?
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1917 |
What happened in psychology, during the Great War?
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Titchener's Society of Experimental Psychologists, meeting at Harvard.
Robert Yerkes, APA president asked what psychology can do.
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Did Titchener participate in WWI?
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Titchener declined to participate because he was a British citizen
-Picked up chair, removed it and himself from room
-Disliked applying Psychology to practical problems
-Trading "a science for a technology"
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During WWI, what did psychological testing apply to, and what were the two groups that people were divided into called?
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Psychological testing applied to the problem of assessing the level of intelligence of great number of recruits.
-To classify them and assign them suitable tasks.
Grouped into Army Alpha and Army Beta (non-English speaking, or illiterate people).
-Order to begin testing wasn't given until 3 months after the war ended.
More than one million men were tested
-Far more illiterate than thought: 1 in 4
Personality tests used when the army expressed interest in spreading out neurotic results.
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After World War I, what was thought of Psychology?
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Psychological testing gained the success of public attention.
Public education system in U.S. reorganized around I.Q.
Many psychologists found gainful employment developing and applying psychological tests.
-In haste, some poor results.
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What were Henry Goddard's racial thoughts on intelligence and what was his "experiment"?
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He was concerned that authorities were "failing to prevent mentally retarded people from entering the country"
In 1912 Goddard visited Ellis Island
-Selected young men who "looked mentallu deficient
Confirmed by administering Binet test through interpreter
Interpreter argued test was unfair (different words used in languages).
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What did Lightner Witmer accomplish?
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Began the field of clinical psychology
-Started the world's first psychology clinic
-Different from modern clinical psychology (school psychology)
-Interested in assessing and treating learning and behavioral problems in schoolchildren
-Offered the first college course on clinical psychology
-Started the first clinical psychology journal
Pioneer of functional psychology
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What did Lightner Witmer realize, in his study of "Charles Gilman"?
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Physical evaluation: Emotional and cognitive functioning could be affected by physical problems.
Social workers gave summary of family history: Genetic factors largely responsible for behavioral and cognitive disturbances.
Later, Witmer realized that environmental factors were important.
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How did clinical psychology advance as a profession?
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-Changed when the U.S. entered WWII in 1941.
-Large numbers of draftees had severe anxieties, uncontrollable anger, and generally unstable psychic presentations
-Army established training programs for hundreds of clinical psychologists to treat military personnel.
-VA
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Who invented psychotherapy, and how did he treat patients?
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Hugo Munsterberg
Treated patients in his laboratory using suggestion.
Mental illness - behavioral maladjustment problem.
Thought whiskey was prescribed for emotional problems.
-He disliked Freud.
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What is Industrial Psychology, and who invented it?
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Hugo Munsterberg
-Vocational guidance
-Advertising
-Personal Management
-Mental testing
-Employee motivation
-Effects of fatigue and monotony on job performance.
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By the 1910;s, what had happened in psychology?
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By 1910 <40 years after Wundt formally founded it, psychology had evolved
-Structuralism still strong, but no longer exclusive position
-Functionalism was maturing
In 1913, John B. Watson declares war on both
-Revolutionary movement: Behaviorism.
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What changes did Watson promote?
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Philosophical tradition of objectivism and mechanism, animal psychology, and functional psychology.
Zeitgeist dominated by objectivistic, mechanistic, and materialistic influences.
New psychology
-Focused on only what could be seen, heard, or touched.
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What was the influence of Animal Psychology on Behaviorism?
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Antecedent to Watson's psychology
Grew out of:
-Evolutionionary psychology
-Attempts to demonstrate the existence of mind in lower organisms and the continuity between animal and human minds
Built on pioneering work of John Romanes and Conwy Lloyd Morgan
Methodology was becoming more objective
Watson: Behaviorism is a direct outgrowth of studies in animal behavior during the first decade of the 20th century.
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What is Connectionism?
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Thorndike's approach to learning was based on connections between situations and responses.
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What is trial-and-error learning?
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Learning based on the repetition of response tendencies that lead to success.
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What is the law of effect?
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Acts that produce satisfaction in a given situation become associated with that situation, when the situation recurs, the act is likely to recur.
If you get a good result, you'll try it again. If you get a bad one, you won't.
Law of exercise (AKA law of use and disuse)
-The more an act or response is used in a given situation, the more strongly the act becomes associated with that situation.
Repetition (or practice) improves learning.
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What is an example of the law of effect?
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Why don't you split in class.
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What is an example of the law of exercise?
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Drug use (you learn to be an addict).
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What did Pavlov work on?
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Worked on learning
Helped shift associationism from subjective ideas to objective and quantifiable physiological events.
-Example of topic: Glandular secretions and muscular movements.
Provided Watson with a method for studying behavior and for attempting to control and modify it.
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What were Pavlov's views of Psychology?
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Unfavorable views of psychology
-Fined RA's who used psychological instead of physiological terminology
-Later more positive view-occasionally called himself an experimental psychologist.
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What is Reinforcement and how did Pavlov's conditioning experiment run?
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Something that increases the likelihood of an experiment
Pavlov's experimental program lasted longer and involved more people than any since Wundt
Analytic, mechanistic, and atomistic
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What were the applications of conditioning methods in behavior therapy?
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Systematic desensitization
Aversion therapy
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To Pavlov, what were all animals (dogs and humans)
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Machines, complicated machines
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After Watson got kicked out of Academia, what did he get into?
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Business and Advertising.
Advertising
-Consumers like machines
-Focus on style, not substance
Popular articles
-Predicted the end of the institution of marriage
Lectured but dismissed for alleged sexual misconduct.
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What were Watson's child rearing practices?
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He believed that parents should never hug or kiss their children and only pat their head if they do a good job on a hard task.
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What were Watson's views?
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Psychic or mental concepts have no value for a science of psychology
Official launch of behaviorism "Psychological Review"
Argued for the acceptance of animal psychology and described the advantages of using animal subjects in psychological research
Wanted behaviorism to be of practical value; applied to the real world as well.
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What was the subject matter of behaviorism?
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Focus on elements of behavior: Body's muscular movements and glandular secretions
Psychology would deal only with acts that could be described objectively, without using subjective or mentalistic terminology.
Underlying belief: All areas of behavior would be considered in objective S-R terms.
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What were the contributions of Watson's Behaviorism?
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Effective agent of the Zeitgeist
More objective in methods and terminology
Overcame earlier positions in psychology
Strong conceptual base for modern psychology
Watsonian behaviorism was replaced by other forms o psychological objectivism that built on it.
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