BIOL 4220: EXAM 2
158 Cards in this Set
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Pain analgesic test
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Tail-flick test
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Hippocampus
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Associative learning and memory
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Hippocamus contain _________ cells
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Place Cells
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Clinical Trials
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Start testing on humans after you test on animals
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Ethics
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Professional code of conduct that you impose on yourself
Objective
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Morals
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Code of conduct that you impose on others
Subjective
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Criteria for Clinical trial
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Benefits vs, detriments, call of duty, reduce pain and suffering, Animal useful for exp, and need to reduce # of subjects
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Double blind study
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Neither the subject nor the experimenter know the condition
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Single Blind study
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Experimenter knows condition, subject doesnt
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Placebo Effect
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Psychological/suggestive effect thats not due to the substance investigated
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How would you test a psychic
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Test real psychic and fake psychic (placebo)
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MRI
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Magnetic resonance imaging
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NMR
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Nuclear magnetic resonance
Works with half lives
Gives structural image (3D)
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FMRI
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Functional MRI
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What does FMRI measure
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Oxygenated hemoglobin (oxygen consumption)
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FMRI is BOLD. What does BOLD mean?
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Blood oxygen level dependent
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NIRS
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NIRS
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NIRS measures
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The difference btwn oxygenated vs deoxygenated hemoglobin
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NIRS penetrates how far?
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About 2 cm
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What does the NIRS read?
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Pulse/cortical activity
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PET scan
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Positron emission tomography
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PET scan measures
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Chemical composition and neurotransmitter concentration
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CAT scan
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Computer aided tomography
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CAT scan emits
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x-rays
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CAT scan can scan
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Blood vessels
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EEG
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Electroencephelogram
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EEG measures
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Electrical activity in the brain
thousands of action potentials
synchronized AP activity
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Desynchronized EEG
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High frequency
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Synchronized EEG
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low frequency
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MEG
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magnetoencephalogram
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MEG definition
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Maps brain activity using magnets
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TMS
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation
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TMS definition
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procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression.
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ECT
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Electroconvulsive therapy
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ECT definition
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a procedure in which electric currents are passed through the brain, deliberately triggering a brief seizure. Electroconvulsive therapy seems to cause changes in brain chemistry that can immediately reverse symptoms of certain mental illnesses (resistant depression)
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DBS
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Deep brain stimulation
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DBS definition
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Involves implanting electrodes that transmit electrical impulses within part of your brain and is controlled by a pacemaker-like device.
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DBS is used to treat
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Parkinsons
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What part of the brain does DBS involve
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Basal Ganglia
degeneration of DA
Subthalamic Nucleus
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Spinal Cord
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Sensory Interception
Motor Coordination
Spinal Reflex
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Spinal Reflexes
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Genital Reflex
Scratch Reflex
Pain withdraw
Cross-extention
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Brain Stem Reflexes
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Cranial Reflexes
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Cranial Reflexes
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Eye blink
tearing
swallowing
vestibular ocular rflx
optokinetic rflx
Pupillary rflx
Mastication rflx
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Vestibular ocular rflx
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Compensetory eye movement and counter rotation
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Optokinetic Reflex
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Eye movement
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Cranial Nucleus
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In brain stem
Mediates reflexes
Vomitting rflx
Chemical trigger zone (CSF)
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Thalamus
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Gateway for sensory and motor signals
Integration
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Thalamus: Sensation
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Sensory "feel" sensation
Pleasant vs. unpleasant
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Thalamus: "Emotional" feel of the sensation
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Emotional Pain: Suffering
How much you can tolerate (quality)
Physical Pain: Hurt
Intensity of stimuli
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Excessive stimuli (intensity)
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Potential damage
Quantity
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Dissociative anesthetic - types of drugs
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Ketamine, PCP, DXM
Involved with the thalamus
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Referred pain
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Involved with the Thalamus
Term used to describe the phenomenon of pain perceived at a site adjacent to or at a distance from the site of an injury's origin
Ex. Chest pain rather than heartache.
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Representations
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Topographic representation, somatogrpahic rep, tonotopic, retinotopic
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Topographic Representation
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Damage=deficit in a certain area
You can tell what part of the brain is damaged without needing a brain scan b/c there will be a deficit in functioning
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Parietal Lobe contains __________ cortex
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Association
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Frontal lobe
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Higher cognition
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Association Cortex
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Body rotation
Geometry
Interpersonal space
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Sagital section
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Way you cut the brain so you can see it from the side.
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Cingulate Cortex
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Emotion
Conflict resolution
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Insula
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Emotions (gut feeling)
Interoception
Social cognition
Ability to recognize others
Empathy
Cravings (esp. nicotine)
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Mirror neurons
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Imitation learning
Neurons fire in response to others actions and intentions
copy cat
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Broca's area
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Language production (speech)
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Wernicke's area
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Language comprehension
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Pre-motor cortex
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Motor planning
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Motor cortex
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Voluntary movement (Motor command)
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If motor cortex is damaged
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Paralysis
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Basal Ganglia
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Motor initiation/termination
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Perception
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Quality, context, meaning, interpretation
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Sensation
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Intensity of stimulus modality
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Modality
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The sensation (vision, hearing, touch)
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Cognition
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Recognition
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HPA axix
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Hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis
Feedback interactions between hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands
through endocrine/hormones
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Hypothalamus
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Regulates internal states/homeostasis
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Homeostasis
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Regulate drives through feedback mechanisms
Hunger: energy balance
Thirst: water balance
Sex: reproductive "
Temperature: temp "
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Hypothalamus controls which gland
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Pituitary
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The pituitary gland controls the body via
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Hormones
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The hypothalamus also sends signals to the _____________.
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Basal ganglia. Ex. When you're thirsty the hypothalamus sends signals to the basal ganglis which initiates movement to get water.
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The subcortical loop via the basal ganglia is what kind of tract?
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Extra pyramidal tract
Motor cortex-thalamus-basal ganglia-hypothalamus-pituitary-spinal cord)
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Cortical spinal tract
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Passes from motor cortex to the spinal cord
Bypasses basal ganglia
Pyramid tract
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Pyramid tract
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6 layers of cortex
pyramidal cell
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Disease associated with subcortical loop
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Parkinsons
delayed feedback
Oscillation=tremor
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What structures are in the limbic system?
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Amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, and septal nuclei
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Hippocampus
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Role in associative learning and memory
Involved with routing (through circuitry)
Cortex involved in memory storage
Spatial memory
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What disease is involves with the Hippocampus
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Alzheimer's
degeneration of ACh neurons in hippocampus and cortices
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Steps involved in learning and memory
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Acquisition
consolidation
recall
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Acquisition
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Learning
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Consolidation
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Storage
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Recall
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Retrieval
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Parts of the mesolimbic system
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VTA
Nacc
PFC
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Ventral tegmental area
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Motivation
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Nucleus Accumbens
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Reward reinforcement
Can be stimulated electrically or by injecting DA (cocaine)
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Pre frontal cortex
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Executive function - decision making
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Catecholamine system: groups
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Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
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Example of a synthetic pathway
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Tyrosine>DOPA>DA>NE>EPI
DA, NE, and EPI cannot cross blood brain barrier
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Blood brain barrier
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Tight junction in capillaries in the brain. Protects the brain by preventing many chemical from passing the BBB.
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Prefrontal cortex projects to
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Association cortex
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Association cortex projects to
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hippocampus
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hippocampus projects to
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amygdala and mammillary body
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amygdala projects to
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hypothalamus
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hypothalamus projects to
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ventral tegmental area
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Ventral tegmental area projects to
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NAcc
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NAcc projects to
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Prefrontal cortex
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Mammillary body projects to
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anterior thalamus
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Ant. Thalamus projects to
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Cingulate cortex
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Cingulate cortex projects to
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Hippocampus
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# of dopamine neurons
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1 Million vs. 10-100 billion in brain
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# noradrenalin neurons
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about 12,000. Projection is very diffused. Projects to 250,000 synapse
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DA neurons are located
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in the rostral part of the brain (front). In the midbrain, hypothalamus, and olfactory bulb.
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NE and EPI are located in
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Caudal (back) part of the brain. In the pons and medulla.
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The meso limbic system is in what part of the brain
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Mid brain
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Which pathway is in the meso limbic system
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Dopaminergic pathway
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Cocaine blocks what?
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Dopamine transporter. It doesn't get recycled.
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Emphetamine
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Stimulates release of dopamine
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ADHD results from the desensitization of
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D4
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Schizophrenia is a result of
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Too much dopaminbe
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Treatment for schizophrenia
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Antipsychotics that decrease dopamine
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Side effect of schizophrenia tx
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extra pyramidal SE: Parkinsons symptoms
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Nigrostriatal system
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a neural pathway that connects the substantia nigra with the striatum. It is one of the four major dopamine pathways in the brain, and is particularly involved in the production of movement, as part of a system called the basal ganglia motor loop.
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Loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra is
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one of the main pathological features of Parkinson's disease
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Side effect of tx of parkinsons
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Too much dopamine will cause schisophrenia symptoms
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The substancia nigra is involved with
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Motor initiation/termination
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Parkinsons symptoms
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Frozen posture, tremors
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Cause of parkinsons
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Neuro toxins. Older is worse bc toxins are cumulative
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Treatment for parkinsons
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l-DOPA. This can cross BBB and DA can't
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the L in l-dopa stands for
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levo (biologically active)
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Neuro toxins
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MPTP
MPPP
6-OHDA (kills DA nuerons)
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Oxidative stress hypothesis in PD
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Electron transfer reaction (O2-> H2O2 + free radicals.)
Oxidative stress due to increased exposure to, or increased susceptibility to, free radicals is hypothesized to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of PD (1, 2). Oxidative stress refers to the production of free radicals cap…
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Free radicals are
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Unpaired electrons that are extremely reactive and have a short half life. They are powerful oxidizing agents
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Because free radicals are powerful oxidizing agents they
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Cause cell injury/death and disrupts membrane function
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Lipid peroxidation
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oxidation of poly unsaturated fatty acids in membrane phospholipids
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By products of electron transfer rxn in mitochondria
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Oxyradicals and hydrogen peroxide
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Free radicals at low levels
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protective mechanism
Cellular antioxidants
vitamin E and C
rxn w/ free radicals and stop chain rxn
Enzymes
Ex. superoxide sismutase, slutathione peroxidase catalase
removes radicals
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Hydroxyl radicals
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Are too reactive and cant be eliminated by enzymes. Lead to MPTP toxicity
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MPP
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Inhibits oxidative phosphorylation.
Decreases ATP synthesis which leads to oxidative stress.
Causes cell injury/damage/death.
Causes parkinsons
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MPP which species is vulnerable
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Only humans not mice and rats
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Why are rats resistant to MPP
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B/c they have the MAO-B enzymes in the blood side rather than the brain ( like humans)
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Because rats have MPP in the blood and not brain any damage occurs...
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In the blood (in the capillaries and endothelial cells). Oxidation stays n endothelium and doesn't cross into neurons.
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l-DOPA pharmocotherapy
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Takes about 5 years
degenerative disease
dose dependant: side effect = schizophrenia
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Brain grafting
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Tx for parkinsons
transplant of adrenal glands
Doesn't work - grafts never survived
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Deep brain stimulations as a tx for pd
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Subthalamic nucleus stimulated electrically and parkinsons symptoms go away.
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Noradrenergic system (NE) involves what part of the brain
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Locus coerlus
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Locus coerulus
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Awakening system
alertness
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NE neurons projection (rostral)
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Widespred, project to
cerebral cortex (cognition)
Limbic system (emotions)
hypothalumus (drives)
cerebellum (motor cognition)
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Widespred, project to
cerebral cortex (cognition)
Limbic system (emotions)
hypothalumus (drives)
cerebellum (motor cognition)
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Noradrenergic system
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Corticotropic releasing factor does what to Nerve growth factor
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Decreases
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Cell origin of the serotoninergic (5HT) system
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Raphe nucleus
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What does the raphe nucleus do
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Releases serotonin and looks like a ridge
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What system is the medial forebrain bundle a part of
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Serotoninergic system
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What does the MFB diffuse projection to
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Cerebral cortex- social cognition
hippocampus- learning and memory
hypothalamus - drives
limbic system - emotion
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What does MDMA do
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increases relese of serotonin and bonding bx
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What is the 5ht system parallel to
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NE system, but not as widespread. Action is "opposite", it slows body down while NE speeds it up.
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Caudal projection of 5ht system
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Spinal cord - modulates pain and spinal reflxes
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Cholinergic system involves what neurotrasmitter
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Ach Acetylcholine
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what is the cell origin of the cholinergic system
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basal forebrain complex
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The basal forebrain complex is located in the
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medial septal nucleus
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TheBFC projects to the
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Cerebral cortex and hippocampus
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What disease is involved with the BFC
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Alzheimer's disease
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Alzherimer's is a result of
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Degeneration of Ach neurons in the cereral cortex and hippocamus
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BIOL 4220: EXAM 2