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PSY 326: EXAM 1
Tulving |
believed in a hypothetical "store" where information is held, memory is the content or information in that store
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Non-sense Syllables
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Meaningless phrases that can be given to participants to study that avoid the effect of meaning on memory, known as consonant- vowel- consonant trigrams.
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retention rate
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longer the retention interval more likely you will forget something ( ex: items from list)
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saving score
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reduction in time to relearn a previously mastered list
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Forgetting curve
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a graph that traces the decline of memory performance over time
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Overlearning phenomenon
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studying after material has been throughly learned
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Massed Practice
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when all study occurs in one block of time
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Distributed Practice
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when study is spread out over time
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Mary Calkins
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(1863-1930) American psychologist who studied the nature of associative learning. First woman to serve as president of APA
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Paired-Associative Learning
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learning the association between two items, such as language learning
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Calkins Study
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found that the greater the overlap between meaning in cue target pairs the easier it was for the participant to learn and retain info.
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Recency Effect
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the observation that memory is usually superior for items at the end of a list; thought to be caused by the maintenance of those items in working memory
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Behaviorism |
school of psychology that focused on the relation of environmental inputs and the observable behavior of organisms, including human beings
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Classical Conditioning
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an organism comes to associate stimuli
a stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus
Pavlovian or respondent (AKA)
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Classical Conditioning
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a situation in which a relation exists between a stimulus and an outcome; the organism demonstrates a behavior or response that shows that the organism has learned the association between the stimulus and the outcome
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Operant Conditioning
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organisms learn to perform responses or behaviors in response to a stimulus to achieve desirable outcomes or avoid undesirable outcomes
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Frederic Bartlett
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(1886-1969) British psychologist who rejected the approach of behaviorism as well as the methodology of Ebbinghaus
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Frederic Bartlett
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studied memory through short stories and noted the errors that participants made in recall. Also stated that memory/knowing is based on attitudes, experiences and behavior
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Endel Tulving
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developed the encoding specificity principle, that is, the idea that retrieval is better when it occurs in situations that match the conditions under which the memory was encoded
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Cognitive Psychologists
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An approach to psychology that emphasizes hidden mental processes
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Cognitive Psychology
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proved useful in addressing issues of language, attention, and decision making, as well as memory and it continues to be a dominant force in psychological theory
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Cognitive Neuroscience
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the study of the role of the brain in producing cognition
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Experiment
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set of observations that occur in controlled circumstances determined by the experimenter
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Independent variables
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the factors that the experimenter manipulates across different conditions
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the factors that the experimenter manipulates across different conditions
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the observations that we measure or record in response to the independent variable
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Random Assignment
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any particular participant is equally likely to be assigned to any of the conditions
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Double-Blind procedure
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neither the tester nor the participant knows what condition that participant is in
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Recall |
a person must generate the target memory based on cues, without seeing or hearing the actual target memory
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Free Recall
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a person must generate memories with minimal or no cuing of the memories
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Cued Recall
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a person is given a specific cue and must generate a target memory that corresponds to that cue
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Recognition
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person must identify the target memory from among a set of presented items
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Old/New Recognition
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person must decide whether an item was on the study list
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Forced- Choice recognition
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person must identify the answer from among a series of possible answers
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Implicit memory test
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tests that draw on the non-conscious aspects of memory
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Reaction Time
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the measured amount of time required to perform a particular task
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Source judgments
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our attributions of where or from whom we learned something
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Reality Monitoring
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our ability to distinguish whether our memory is of a real or an imagined event
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Metamemory
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our knowledge and awareness of our own memory processes
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our knowledge and awareness of our own memory processes
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predictions we make as we study items of the likelihood that we will remember them later
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Neuropsychology |
the study of patients with brain damage
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Neuroimaging |
refers to a set of techniques that allows researchers to make detailed maps of the human brain and assign functions to particular regions in the brain
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EEG (electroencephalography)
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using electrodes to measure the electrical output of the brain by recording electric current at the scalp
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MEG ( magnetoencephalography)
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using a magnetic sensor to detect the small magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain
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PET (positron emission tomography)
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radioactive chemicals are placed in the blood, allowing scientists to obtain a three-dimensional image that can capture both the structure and function of the brain
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fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imagery)
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magnetic fields create a three dimensional image that can capture both the structure and function of the brain
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Prospective Memory
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memory for the things we need to do in the future
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Engram |
the hypothetical physical unit of storage of a memory
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Alzheimer's disease
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one of many dementia-type illnesses that are more common in older adults than in younger adults. Memory is the first deficit detected in this disease
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Traumatic brain injuries
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sudden and devastating injuries to the brain
- Closed-head injuries are greater in damage than open-head
- Car crashes are biggest cause of TBI
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Clinical neuropsychology
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the practice of helping brain-damaged patients recover and cope with their injuries
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Neurons |
biological cells that specialize in the transmission and retention of information
· Basic building blocks of brain and nervous system
· Contains a nucleus that houses a chromosome which holds genes, which contain DNA
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Dendrites
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the parts of the neuron that receive information from other neurons or directly from sensory receptors
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Axon |
the part of the neuron that sends information to other neurons
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Action potential
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the electrochemical process of transmission in an axon
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Synapses
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gaps between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of the next neuron, in which transmission occurs via neurotransmitters
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Terminal Buttons
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the ends of axon that hold neurotransmitters
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a. Where are memories stored?
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All throughout different cortexes and stored through connections of areas in the brain.
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Soma |
the cell body; the soma makes neurons like all other cells in body, except these somas have fibers that extend out of the body that allow the brain to transmit info to other parts.
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Neurotransmitters
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· Chemicals that cross the synapse and induce and electrical flow into next neuron
· Basically
o Dendrites send electrical and short
o Axons send electrochemically, long. Electric then boosted by chemical
o Synapse is all chemical
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Myelin Sheath
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Coats axon to speed up flow + protection
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Multiple Sclerosis
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A disease that causes the loss of myelin along axons, resulting in movement deficits.
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Receptor Cells
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Modified dendrites that transform physical energy like light into an electrochemical neural signal.
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Neurotransmitters (Excitatory)
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They are proteins produced by the nervous system
- NTs that increase activity in neurons; more action potentials
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Neurotransmitters (Inhibitory)
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NTs that decrease activity in neurons; fewer action potentials
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GABA |
Most commonly used NT in the brain
- Excitability and muscle tone
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Acetylcholine
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Used to innervate and control our muscles
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Parkinson's Disease
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- When not enough dopamine is produced
- Troubled movements, frozen facial expressions, unaware tics
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Substantia Nigra
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Produces dopamine
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Brain Structures
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- Brain is 2% of body weight but used 25% of oxygen
- Left Hemisphere- Language and memory
- Right Hemisphere- Spacial Cognition + music
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Subcortical Structures
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"Evolutionary old”; Regulate heartbeating, breathing, hunger, thirst, sleep, movement
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Cerebral Cortex
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- The outer layer of the brain most associated with higher cognitive and emotional functioning
- Deals with language, creativity, problem solving
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Sub cortical Structures: Hippocampus
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- Learning and Memory; injury to it causes amnesia
- 1 on each side of brain
- Left side = verbal
- Right side = memory, space, directions
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Limbic System
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Contains hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and functions in memory and emotion
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Amnesia |
Memory deficits acquired through brain damage
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-It is critical in emotional learning, fear, and memory.
- Fear conditioning and emotional learning
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-It is critical in emotional learning, fear, and memory.
- Fear conditioning and emotional learning
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Diencephalon
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- It is the relay point in human memory curcuits
- If hurt, Korsakoff’s disease comes, messes with new learning
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Thalamus |
Heavily connected to whole brain; routing center that connects disparate brain parts
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Hypothalamus
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Basic emotions
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Cortical Areas of Brain Linked to Memory
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· Cerebral Cortex
- Most recent area of brain; most different in animals
- Contains:
- Frontal Lobe
- Temporal Lobe
- Parietal Lobe
- Occipital Lobe
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Parietal Lobe
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- Somatosensory and attention
- Somatosensory- senses of touch; good and bad
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Occipital |
· Visual processing
· V4 = color processing
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Frontal Lobes
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· Deals with higher emotions, decisions, metacognition, memory
· Prefrontal Cortex- Higher emotions(jealousy,respect) + memory
· Damage to FL causes people to say untrue things but not know they are untrue themselves
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Temporal Lobe
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- Learning, memory, audition, language
- Medial Temporal Lobes- Learning and memory; damage to it can cause anterograde amnesia.
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Neuroimaging
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· A set of techniques to make detailed maps of the brain and assign functions to particular regions in the brain
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EEG |
o Uses electrodes to measure the electrical output of the brain by recording electric currents at the scalp
o Based on fact that neurons conduct electricity
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Event Related Potential
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Averaged EEG pattern in response to a particular stimulus
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P300 |
Specific wave that occurs 300 miliseconds after presented stimulus
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MEG |
- Using a magnetic sensor to detect small magnetic fields produced by electrical brain activity; does from the scalp
- More detailed special maps
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TMS
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A magnetic charge applied via skull to a certain area of the brain
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PET |
o Getting a detailed image without damage to tissue, but injects radioactive substances into blood.
o Good for medical and research
o 30 second window to see image
o Says more used brain area requires more blood
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fMRI |
- Just like PET minus the radioactiveness
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Anterograde Amnesia
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inability to form new memories due to brain damage
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Retrograde Amnesia
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inability to remember events prior to the brain damage
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Cholinergic
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· Drugs given to patients with Alzheimer’s that reduce memory loss in early phases.
o Caffeine just makes you stay up later
o Ginkgo works for memory, might be a placebo though
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Benzodiazepines |
Drugs for anxiety, insomnia, muscle relaxation. Strong amnesia-inducing drugs especially within the episodic memory domain.
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Strong Amnesia
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inducing drugs especially within the episodic memory domain.
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Semantic memory
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world knowledge
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Episodic memory
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Individuals life memories, emotions.
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Olfactory Bulb
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· Primary organ in the brain used for processing odors
o Located in the limbic system, deals with odors, memory and emotion
o Connected to hippocampus and amygdala
§ The reason why memory connects with smell
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