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KIN 464: EXAM 3
Motivation originates from
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physiological and psychological needs.
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Motivation comes from the latin word
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movere, which means move.
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Motivation definition:
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the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction.
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Motivation goal:
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to cause people to put forth their best efforts with enthusiasm and effectiveness, in order to achieve and hopefully surpass organizational objectives.
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Victor Vroom felt
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A manager’s basic job is to facilitate highly motivated people to perform at near peak capacity.
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For Victor Vroom's view to happen two things must happen:
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People must have the ability to do the work.
The work environment must be satisfactory (relationships, support, equipment, facilities).
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Content Theories of Motivation
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Focus on the needs within individuals that cause them to act in certain ways.
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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
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Consists of five levels of need that must be satisfied.
The thrust of Maslow’s theory is that a satisfied need is no longer a motivator.
When a need is satisfied, at once other and higher needs emerge and become motivating factors.
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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory 5 levels:
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Physiological and Survival Needs
Safety and Security Needs
Love (social) Needs
Ego and Esteem Needs
Self-actualization
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Order of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
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Herzberg’s
Motivation-Maintenance Theory states that all work-related factors can be grouped into one of two categories:
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Motivation factors – job satisfiers
Maintenance factors - hygiene factors or job dissatisfiers.
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Motivation factors:
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Achievement
Recognition
The work itself
Opportunity for growth and advancement
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Maintenance factors do not promote motivation,
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but they can prevent it from occurring.
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Douglas McGregor’s
Theory X and Theory Y
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Identifies two styles of managing based on the manager’s view of human nature.
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Theory X (Autocratic) is the
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assumptions made about human behavior in each style.
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Theory X (Autocratic):
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People have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it if he can.
Because of this, most people must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort.
People prefer to be directed.
People avoid responsibility.
People have relatively little ambition.
Above all people want security.
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Theory Y (Participative – leads to job enlargement and enrichment):
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Work is a source of satisfaction.
People who are committed will be self-motivated and self-directed.
A person’s commitment to objectives depends on the rewards he or she expects to receive when goals are achieved.
Under the right conditions, people will both accept and seek responsibility.
The abilities to think creatively, to innovate, and to solve problems are widely, not narrowly, distributed among people.
The intellectual abilities of most people are underutilized.
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The Hawthorne Studies
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Represent the beginning of the Human Relations Movement in management.
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The Hawthorne Studies significance:
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employees performance was affected by something other than working conditions; primarily by social and psychological factors introduced into the work place.
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Managers who assumed people work only for pay and are self-serving in their interests have what Mayo called
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the “Rabble Hypothesis”
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McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory
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Needs are acquired over time and shaped by one’s life experiences.
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Most of the needs from McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theorycan be classed as either:
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Achievement
Affiliation
Power (two types)
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Achievement from McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory:
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The need to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high risk situations.
Achievers need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their achievements.
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Affiliation from McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory:
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Those with a high need for affiliation need harmonious relationships with other people and need to be accepted by other people.
They tend to conform to the norms of their work group.
They need work that provides significant personal interaction.
Managers should provide them with a group cooperative environment.
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Power from McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory:
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Personal power – want to direct others, and this is often perceived as undesirable
Institutional (social) power – want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization.
Managers should provide power seekers with the opportunity to manage others.
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Process Theories of Motivation
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concentrate on rewards that individuals will possibly receive if they behave or work in a certain way.
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Punishment-Reward:
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is the most widely used theory; provides reward for good performance or behavior and punishment for bad.
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Traditional Theory:
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(he Scientific Management Approach): based on money’s being a motivating factor when directly related to individual employee performance (Differential Piece Rate Incentive).
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B. F. Skinner’s
Reinforcement Theory
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The consequences of past action influence future actions.
States that behavior which leads to a positive consequence (reward) tends to be repeated.
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Victor Vroom’s
Preference-Expectancy Theory
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Suggests that employee motivation relates to preference and expectancy on the job.
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Vroom concluded three relationships enhance motivated behavior:
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1.A positive relationship between effort and performance.
2.A positive relationship between good performance and rewards.
3.The delivery or achievement of valued outcomes as rewards.
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John Stacey Adam’s
Equity Theory
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Fairness is based on people’s perceptions of their job inputs and outcomes, regardless of how realistic such perceptions are
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John Stacey Adam’s
Equity Theory:Inputs relate to job requirements, e.g.
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Qualifications
Skills
Training
Experience.
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John Stacey Adam’s
Equity Theory:Outcomes relate to what employees receive in exchange for their efforts, e.g.
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1.Pay
2.Recognition
3.Status
4.Benefits
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Inequity occurs when an employee perceives his or her
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inputs and outcomes to be less than the job inputs and outcomes of another employee.
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John Stacey Adam’s
Equity Theory: When employee outcomes (expectations) are not met,
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the employee tends to become dissatisfied.
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Morale |
Also called esprit de corps.
Is the state of mind of an individual or group in regard to confidence, cheerfulness, and discipline.
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Morale and performance:
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There is a tendency for the two to correlate directly but with many exceptions.
There is a belief among managers that high productivity results from high morale.
High morale is correlated with decreases
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High morale is correlated with decreases in:
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Absences
Tardiness
Accidents
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Job Satisfaction
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Refers to the state of mind of an individual about his or her work environment.
Morale of the group can affect an individual’s job satisfaction, just as job satisfaction can have an influence on morale.
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Methods to Increase Job Satisfaction: Job Rotation
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Involves employees’ being moved from one job to another periodically to reduce boredom and to increase skills and experience.
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Methods to Increase Job Satisfaction: Job Enlargement
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Is the expansion of jobs to give the employee a greater variety of tasks to perform with added responsibility.
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Methods to Increase Job Satisfaction: Job Enrichment
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Is the process of designing jobs to include motivators which can lead to more job satisfaction.
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Methods to Increase Job Satisfaction: Flextime
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Worker creates schedule within reason.
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Methods to Increase Job Satisfaction: Four-day Work Weeks.
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Employee works four ten-hour days instead of five eight-hour days.
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Methods to Increase Job Satisfaction: Casual Friday
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Is implemented in organizations where the employees are required to dress smartly every day.
Employees are allowed to wear whatever they like on Fridays.
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Factors that Promote Motivation
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The employee’s skills match the requirements of the job.
Open communication between manager and employee.
The work is challenging and stimulating.
Participation is encouraged in problem-solving and decision-making.
Managers provide positive feedback (recognition).
Employees are allowed some autonomy or independence of action.
There is opportunity for personal growth.
There is opportunity for promotion.
Compensation, monetary and psychological, is fair as it relates to employee performance.
Jobs are secure (steady employment and benefits).
Good working conditions and necessary resources exist.
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Leadership is
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the process of inspiring or influencing members of a group to perform their tasks enthusiastically and competently.
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The future will require all employees,
management and non-management alike to be leaders” because of the trend of:
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flatter organizational hierarchy
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flatter organizational hierarchy:
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shrinking management ranks and less bureaucracy
the push for greater speed, better customer responsiveness and on-going innovation
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Managers should be, but
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may not be, effective leaders.
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Leaders have “followers” who are loyal to them as long as they
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do not become disillusioned with the goals or tactics of the leader.
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Managers who are effective leaders are
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clearly identified because of employee enthusiasm, loyalty, and dedication.
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Leadership is part of management,
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but not all of it
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Leadership occurs any time
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one attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or group.
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Understanding how managers influence employee performance requires an understanding
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of the sources of power that manager’s have to influence employee attitudes and behavior.
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Managers in formal organizations have legitimate power because
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of their position in the organizational hierarchy.
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Types of Power
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1.Reward Power
–Person’s ability to provide rewards
2.Referent Power
–Person’s unique personal characteristics that are appealing to others
3.Expert Power
–Person’s expertise, knowledge and skill
4.Coercive Power
–Person’s ability to punish
5.Legitimate
–Person’s formal position in the organization
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Effective managerial leaders rely heavily on:
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Reward power
Referent power
to influence individual and group behavior and performance
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Scientific Management Era
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The subject of leadership was given little attention by Taylor, Fayol, & Gantt.
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Early Interest: The so-called manager/leader of that day influenced workers to meet organizational goals by using a combination of :
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legitimate (positional) power
coercive power
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It wasn't until later that Taylor
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introduced the dual-wage system – incentive wage plan (reward power).
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Hawthorne Studies: Elton Mayo and his associates concluded
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social and psychological factors affected work performance.
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Mayo stressed the need for managerial leadership to provide social and job satisfaction to employees, e.g. :
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individual & group relationships
morale
individual growth
individual and team needs
employee growth and satisfaction
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Trait Theory:
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trait theorists believed that individuals who are effective leaders have identifiable common traits
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Trait Theory facts:
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The oldest approach to study of leadership
Trait theory concentrated on identifying the common traits that effective leaders possess
These traits may be physical, social or personality traits such as height, attractiveness, intelligence, creativity, enthusiasm, self-confidence, knowledge, tact, empathy etc.
Debunked by modern leadership scholars
“The old assumption that ‘leaders are born’ has been discredited completely”
Leadership situations vary widely, and personal traits required in one scenario may not match the need in another
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Leadership Styles and Attitudes: Charismatic style
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Some individuals are charismatic and use personal magnetism to influence others e.g.
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Leadership Styles and Attitudes: Negative Style
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View employees negatively.
Subscribes to the view that people are lazy and thus relies on coercion and fear to influence behavior.
Negative leaders subscribe to McGregor’s Theory X attitude towards employees.
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Leadership Styles and Attitudes:
Participative (Democratic) Style
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Also described as a democratic leadership style.
Allows employees to have greater input in the decision-making process when the subject directly affects them.
The foundation of participative leadership rests with McGregor’s Theory Y assumptions about people => Empowerment
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Leadership Styles and Attitudes:
Free-rein or Laissez Faire
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Leadership styles may overlap.
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An effective leader will tailor his or her style to the situation, to the types of followers, to their
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own personal traits, and to their attitude to people. This is know as Situational Leadership
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Leadership Styles and Attitudes:
ØPygmalion Effect or the Self-fulfilling Prophecy
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the concept that states that the expectation of an event or behavior can actually cause it to happen.
Manager’s expectations are the key to a subordinate’s performance and development.
Leaders who take a positive attitude toward employees can instill confidence in them to achieve.
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Likert’s
University of Michigan Studies
Identified four patterns or styles of leadership:
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1. Exploitative Authoritarian
Authoritarian form of management that attempts to exploit subordinates
2. Benevolent Authoritative
–Authoritarian form of management, paternalistic in nature
3. Consultative
–Manager requests and receives inputs from subordinates but maintains the right to make the final decision
4. Participative
–Manager gives some direction, but decisions are made by consensus and majority, based on total participation
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Likert made the
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surveys we take most now-n-days; the strongly agree or disagree
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Likert concluded that
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participative was the most effective style of leadership
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Fielder’s
Contingency Theory of Leadership
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The success of a leader is not based on personality traits alone.
Other factors have an impact on leadership effectiveness.
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Fielder’s
Contingency Theory of Leadership: Those factors might include:
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The nature of the work
Types of employees being managed
Kind of organization
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Fielder’s
Contingency Theory of Leadership
isolated three major factors that influence a leader’s style:
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1. Position Power
–The power the leader has because of the organizational hierarchy and his/her position of authority
2. Task Structure
–Refers to the clarity with which tasks or work are defined
3. Leader-Member relations
–Concerns the trust, confidence and loyalty employees/followers have in the leader. Fiedler names this the most important factor
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Path-Goal Approach:
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A contingency approach which tries to predict leadership effectiveness in different situations
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According to path-goal theory, the impact of leader behavior on employee satisfaction and effort depends on:
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1.The situation
2.The task or work characteristics
3.Employee characteristics
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Transformational Leaders:
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Followers feel trust, admiration, loyalty and respect toward the leader.
Followers are motivated to do more than originally expected to do.
cultivate the acceptance of the group mission by their employees/followers.
Often such leaders are charismatic and inspire their followers through intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration
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Transactional Leaders:
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based on the concept that leaders can bargain with their employees/followers and provide rewards if performance criteria are met.
“exchange of rewards for compliance.”
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Both transformational and transactional leadership
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are appropriate depending on the situation.
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Essential Leadership Characteristics
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1. Be tolerant – stay calm in a crisis
2. Encourage others to participate – solicit ideas
3. Do not become obsolete – look for new ways or ideas
4. Compete fairly and properly
5. Watch the impulse or vengeance – avoid being vindictive
6. Be a good winner – share the victory with your followers/employees
7. Lose gracefully – learn from mistakes and move on
8. Obey legal restrictions
9. Be loyal to your associations
10. Set goals at a level of excellence but make them achievable
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