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PSY 100: EXAM 3
Learning |
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. |
Classical Conditioning |
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. |
Ivan Pavlov |
Salivating dog experiment. Known for Classical Conditioning. |
Unconditioned Stimulus |
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. |
Unconditioned Response |
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. |
Conditioned Stimulus |
in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. |
Conditioned Response |
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). |
John B. Watson |
"Little Albert" and conditioned emotion |
Acquisition |
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. |
Extinction |
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. |
Spontaneous Recovery |
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. |
Generalization |
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
Discrimination |
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. |
Predisposition |
any set of factors which while not be a direct cause make it more likely that a subject will display a personality trait or characteristic, or develop a particular disorder or behavior |
Cognition |
the psychological result of perception and learning and reasoning |
Observational Learning |
learning by observing others. |
Bandura's "Bobo doll" experiment |
the name of two experiments conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963 studying patterns of behavior associated with aggression. |
mirror neurons |
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy. |
Prosocial |
ositive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior |
Negative Observational Learning |
Antisocial effects. The reason why battered wives have sons who beat their wives as well. That is what they have observed. |
Encoding Failure |
The inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory |
Storage Decay |
even after encoding something well, we sometimes later forget it |
"The Forgetting Curve" |
A graph showing a characteristic pattern of forgetting over time for a wide variety of materials under different conditions. It was developed by Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late 1800's. More than HALF the memory loss occurs in the first hour, and about 65% is lost in the first 8 hours. |
Retrieval Failure |
the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues |
Proactive Interference |
ruptive effect of PRIOR learning on the recall of NEW information |
Retroactive Interference |
the disruptive effect of NEW learning on the recall of OLD information |
Motivated Forgetting |
occurs when frightening, traumatic events are forgotten because people want to forget them |
Memory Construction |
we filter information and fill in missing pieces with plausible guesses and assumptions |
The Misinformation Effect |
Occurs when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading postevent information (Hit car vs. Smashed Car) |
Elizabeth Loftus experiment |
memory for an event that has been witnessed is highly flexible. If someone is exposed to new information during the interval between witnessing the event and recalling it, this new information may have marked effects on what they recall. The original memory can be modified, changed or supplemented. |
Source Amnesia |
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (Debra Poole and Stephen Lindsay) |
Repression |
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. |
Five Steps for Improving Memory |
1. Study Repeatedly
2. Make material meaningful
3. Activate Retrieval Cues
4. Use mneumonic Devices
5. Rehearse It |
Operant Conditioning |
onditioning in which an operant response is brought under stimulus control by virtue of presenting reinforcement contingent upon the occurrence of the operant response |
Thorndike's Law of Effect |
that a response followed by a pleasant consequence will probably be repeated and a response followed by an unpleasant consequence will probably be diminished. |
Reinforcement |
(psychology) a stimulus that strengthens or weakens the behavior that produced it |
Positive Reinforcement |
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. |
Negative Reinforcement |
increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs |
Punishment |
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows |
Negative Punishment |
following an undesired response by removing a pleasant stimulus this is also called a time out and reduces the likelihood of the behavior reoccuring |
Positive Punishment |
following an undesired response by adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of the behavior reoccuring |
Schedules of Reinforcement |
The rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will continue; Four types of schedules: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval; interval means over a time and ratio means an act; partial reinforcement is on a variable schedule whereas continuous reinforcement is on a fixed schedule; variable schedules are more effective in learning |
Continuous reinforcement |
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
Partial Reinforcement |
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement |
Fixed Ratio |
a schedule where reinforcement happens after a correct number of responses |
Variable ratio |
a schedule where reinforcement happens after a changing number of responses. Example gambling or sales |
Fixed interval |
reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
Variable interval |
a schedule where reinforcement happens after a varied length of time |
BF Skinner |
pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats |
Skinner Box |
Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response |
Shaping |
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
Extinction |
a conditioning process in which the reinforcer is removed and a conditioned response becomes independent of the conditioned stimulus |
Drawbacks of Punishment |
Punishment does not "erase" an undesirable habit; it merely suppresses it. Sometimes punishment produces unwanted side effects. Punishment is often ineffective unless the punishment is given immediately after the response and each time the response was made. Children are more likely to behave aggressively if frequently punished. |
Memory |
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. |
Encoding |
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. |
Storage |
the retention of encoded information over time. |
Retrieval |
the process of getting information out of memory storage. |
Sensory Memory |
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system |
Short Term Memory |
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. |
Long Term Memory |
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
Automatic Processing |
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. |
Effortful Processing |
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
Rehearsal |
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. |
Spacing Effect |
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. |
Serial Position Effect |
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. |
Herman Ebbinhaus |
pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve. |
Next in line effect |
when people go around in a circle saying words or their names, their poorest memories are for what was said by the person just before them |
Iconic Memory |
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. |
Echoic Memory |
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. |
Flashbulb Memories |
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. |
Implicit Memory |
retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) |
retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) |
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.) |
Hippocampus |
a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage |
Cerebellum |
the brain region extending out from the rear of the brainstem (Figure 20.15), plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning. |
amygdala |
two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion |