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Final Study Guide
a homogenous mixture of two or more substance in a single phase |
solution |
the component present in largest amount |
solvent |
the component present in the smaller amount |
solute |
properties of solutions that depend only on the number of solute particles per solvent molecule and NOT on the IDENTITY of the solute |
colligative properties |
Solution= _____ + _____ |
solute + solvent |
solutions with solute concentration that are under maximum capacity (less than that of a saturated solution) |
unsaturated |
concentration of solute in equilibrium with undissolved solute in a saturated solution |
solubility |
solutions with solute concentrations that are more than that of a saturated solution, over capacity |
oversaturated |
Solution |
A homogenous mixture of a solute and solvent |
Solute |
The thing that there is less of |
What are the four colligative properties? |
"-osmotic pressure
-vapor pressure
-freezing point
-boiling point" |
Colligative properties |
Depend on the number of ions. |
Molarity |
moles of solute per liter of solution |
What are the three concentration units that reflect the number of molecules or ions of solute per solvent molecule? |
-molality, mole fraction, and weight percent |
Molality, m |
mol of solute/ kilograms of solvent |
Molality |
Mole solute/kg solvent |
The molarity and molality of a given solution _______ be the same |
cannot |
molarity~molality in _____ solutions |
dilute |
Mole fraction, X |
moles of solute/moles of solution |
Mole fraction |
(n solute)/(n total) |
Weight Percent |
g solute/g of solution x 100 |
Parts per million |
g solute/ g of solution x 10^6 |
Normality, N |
equivalents of solute/liters of solution |
Solution properties:
1) ______mixtures
2) made up of _____ and ______
3) concentration can be expressed in a number of ways
4) colligative properties are certain physical properties of the solvent that change depending on how much ____ is added |
1) homogenous
2) solutes and solvents
4) solute |
solutions that are evenly mixed and the same throughout |
homogenous |
a stable solution in which the maximum amount of solute has been dissolved |
saturated |
occurs when you reach a point when no additional solute will dissolve and the undissolved solute remains a solid at the bottom of the beaker |
saturated |
everything dissolves at that temperature |
saturated |
occurs when you lower the temperature and try to keep the solute in the solution (example: fudge) |
oversaturated |
melting/moltent: ______ in temperature, ________ goes up, and _______ form |
increase, vibration, liquid |
dissolving: tug of war between _____ and _____, 2 ______ things together such as salt and water |
water and ions; different |
Solids have ______ shape in an array, movement of ions is only _______ |
definite, vibrational |
Liquids do not have an _____ arrangement, molecules slide past one another and movement is ________ |
even, vibrational |
Solubility depends on _____ |
temperature |
Demo: an oversaturated cooled solution was poured on Sodium Acetate (solid) and the solid crystallized and came out of solution; all liquid that remained was _____ for that temperature |
saturated |
When two liquids mix to an appreciable extent to form a solution |
miscible |
liquids that do not mix to form a solution; they exist in contact with each other as separate layers |
immiscible |
_____ dissolves _____, polar dissolves polar, non polar dissolves non polar |
like dissolves like |
Mixing dissimilar liquids is not ______ favorable |
thermodynamically |
ppm is used for very _____ concentrations |
dilute |
Use ____ to go from mL solution to g solution |
density |
In acid/base rxns, an equivalent supplies or reacts with 1 mol ____ or _______ |
H+ or OH-, how many H+ or OH- it takes to react with the compound |
For ionic solids in water, the water-ion interaction is ______ than the ______- ______ hydrogen bonding |
stronger, water to water hydrogen bonding |
water= " _____ _____" |
great solvent |
polar, alcohol and sugar |
polar, alcohol and sugar |
Most alcohols tend to be ______ and both alcohols and sugar dissolve in ______ because both are polar |
liquid, water |
_____ covalent compounds do not dissolve in water (ex: oil and water) |
non polar |
The interaction between oil and water is not _____ enough to break the _____ to _____ interactions and therefore oil does not dissolve in water |
strong, water to water |
Two factors, _____ and ______ determine the extent to which one substance dissolves in another |
enthalpy and entropy |
Network solids including graphite, diamond, and quartz san do not ______ in water because the covalent chemical bonding in them is too strong to be broken so the lattice remains intact |
dissolve |
For molecules that are only polar at one end (such as alcohols), as the length of the carbon chain ______, the solubility in water _____ |
increases, decreases |
For dissolving, you must consider the strengths of which interactions? |
"-solute-solute
-solvent-solvent
-solute-solvent" |
-solute-solute
-solvent-solvent
-solute-solvent |
up |
In ionic solids, temperature and solubility are ______ |
proportional |
Why are temperature and solubility proportional when dealing with ionic solids? |
The temperature makes particles vibrate faster, so all molecule motion goes up |
As temperature increases, the solubility of gas _______ |
decreases |
When dealing with gases, temperature and solubility have a _______ relationship |
inverse |
Why do temperature and solubility of gases have an inverse relationship? |
As temperature goes up, the gas begins to escape |
For solid/liquid solutions: ______ solubility with ______ temperatures |
increased, increased |
For gas/liquid solutions: ______ solubility with _______ temperature |
decreased, increased |
Demo: Calcium in .1 Molarity solution just ________ and calcium in a 6 Molar solution there is ______ and it has a better rxn which means it has a ______ molarity |
bubbles, vapor, higher |
the concentration of the dissolved gas in equilibrium with the substance in gaseous state |
the solubility of gas |
a change in any of the factors determining an equilibrium causes the system to adjust by shifting in the direction that reduces or counteracts the effects of the change |
Le Chatelier's Principle |
Cooling a solution like in the demo is done to ______ solubility |
decrease |
Vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing point, and osmotic pressure all change for a solution depending on HOW MUCH _____ is dissolved |
solute |
Colligative properties are _______ to concentration of the solution and are often used to find molar mass of an unknown sample used as the solute |
proportional |
Vapor pressure: solute-solvent interaction prevents particles from escaping into _____ phase, the vapor pressure is ______ |
gas, lowered |
will NOT go into gas phase |
non volatile |
The vapor pressure of the solvent over the solution is ______ than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent |
lower |
Raoult's Law: |
Delta P solvent= X solvent * P pure solvent |
Raoults law |
Weaker IMF, higher VP - evaporates more easily |
Delta P solvent= change in _____ |
pressure |
Vapor Pressure is only controlled by ______, NOT _____ |
temperature not amount |
1 atm= _____ mmHg |
760 |
An ideal solution is one that obeys _____ ___ |
Raoults Law |
If the solvent-solute interactions are weaker than the solvent solvent interactions, the vapor pressure will be _____ |
higher |
Adding a nonvolatile solute to a solvent _____ the vapor pressure of the _____ |
Adding a nonvolatile solute to a solvent _____ the vapor pressure of the _____ |
Freezing point and melting point are the same; the temperature just depends on the _______ |
Freezing point and melting point are the same; the temperature just depends on the _______ |
The freezing point is lowered with increasing concentration |
freezing point depressing (also melting point) |
Equation for freezing point depression: |
"Delta Tf= Kfm
Tf is the change in feeling temp and Kf is constant for solvent which will always be given" |
How do you get the freezing point of the solution? |
Subtract Delta tf from the normal freezing point of the pure solvent |
Subtract Delta tf from the normal freezing point of the pure solvent |
subtract Delta P solvent from the pure VP |
In a solution, solid particles block and are a physical barrier, so the temperature has to be _______ to get to ____ phase |
lowered, solid phase |
When there is pure ethylene with little water, the water becomes _____ |
solid |
the freezing point of the solution is lower than that of the pure solvent |
freezing point depression |
Vapor pressure= atmospheric pressure; this is when boiling occurs |
boiling point |
A dissolved solute interferes with the particles of solvent as they escape as a gas. This lowers vapor pressure making it harder to boil and ________ the boiling point |
raising; boiling point elevation |
How do you get the boiling point of the solution? |
Add Delta T to boiling point of the pure solvent |
liquid into gas phase |
boiling |
If you have a solute, trying to get particles into gas phase is _____ |
harder |
The vapor pressure lowering caused by the nonvolatile solute leads to an _____ in the boiling point |
increase |
_____ is the movement of water or other solvent through a semi permeable membrane from a more dilute concentration toward an area of greater concentration |
osmosis |
The semi permeable membrane will let ____ go through but not _____ |
solvent, solute |
The flow will be trying to go through the membrane in order to create ______ which is the new flow into solution |
equality |
how much pressure you have to put on one of sides to prevent flow |
osmotic pressure |
Why does the system eventually reach equilibrium? |
the solution moves higher and higher in the tube as osmosis continues and water moves into the sugar solution, eventually the pressure exerted by this column of solution counterbalances the pressure exerted by the water moving through the membrane from the pure water side |
the pressure created by the column of solution for the system at equilibrium |
osmotic pressure |
no net flow |
isotonic, equal movement |
more concentrated inside, new flow inside to try to dilute |
hypotonic |
more concentrated outside, flow going from inside to outside to dilute |
hypertonic (shrivels) ….hyperchild is acting act out |
A blood cell in distilled water is an example of : |
hypotonic solution |
blood cell in concentrated salt solution is an example of: |
hypertonic |
pressure requird to stop osmosis or flow |
osmotic pressure |
Equation for osmotic pressure: |
pi/MRT |
R=m/mol K |
.0821 L atm/mol K |
Non electrolytes ______ split into ions |
do not |
All colligative properties assume ___________ |
nonelectrolytes |
Always add i when taking into account the number of _____ |
ions |
- delta G |
spontaneous, exergonic, reaction takes place |
+ delta G |
non spontaneous, endergonic, rxn does not take place |
delta G = 0 |
"-at equilibrium
-phase change (melting, boiling, condensation, sublimation)
- non spontaneous --> spontaneous or spontaneous --> non spontaneous (at what temperature will this rxn become spontaneous)" |
- delta H |
exothermic/ heat released |
+ delta H |
endothermic/ heat absorbed |
+ delta S |
increase in entropy/disorder |
- delta S |
decrease in entropy/disorder |
(delta)H=q |
under constant pressure and coffee cup calorimeter |
delta E=q @: |
constant volume, bomb calorimeter |
- delta G favors the _____ |
products, 1 K eq > 1 |
+ delta G favors the ______ |
reactants K eq < 1 |
- delta H energy found in _______ and ____ to touch |
product side, hot |
+ delta H: energy is on _______ side, ___ to touch |
reactant, cold |
Increase in entropy: (+ delta S) |
"-solid to liquid to gas
-small # moles --> larger (only use gases)
-small # of molecules --> larger
-increase in temp
-increase in volume
-decrease in pressure
-pure to impure (AQ)
-small to big (SO3 to SO4)" |
Spontaneous changes occur only in the direction that will lead to _____ |
equilibrium |
Standard state: ___ atm and ____ C ( ___K) |
1 atm, 25 C or 298 K |
independent of the path taken to traverse from initial state to final state |
state function |
First Law of Thermodynamics: the energy of the universe is ____ |
constant |
If there is no change in the volume of moles of gas the w= ___ and delta E system is just ___ |
w=0, just heat |
sum of kinetic and potential energies of all particles in a system |
internal energy |
work done ON system= |
positive |
work done by system on surroundings |
negative |
Whenever energy (heat or work) is added to a system, the energy of the system _____ |
increases |
the total heat content of a system |
Enthalpy |
study of the energy content and transformation of energy associated with physical and chemical processes which dictates the direction of the rxn |
thermodynamics |
study of heat changes in chemical reactions |
thermochemistry |
occurs without a continuous input of energy from outside the system |
spontaneous |
rxns not do not occur by themselves and need continuous outside energy to keep them going |
nonspontaneous |
In the demo with the balloons, hydrogen had _____ fire, hydrogen and oxygen was ______ and all were _____ |
broadest, loudest, spontaneous |
Demo: when electricity is put in rxn of bubbling occurs as long as you continuously put energy in the electrode which makes the rxn ________ |
non spontaneous |
Spontaneouity does not tell anything about the ______ of the change or the ______ to which the process will occur before equilibrium is reached |
Rate, extent |
Systems never change spontaneously in a direction that takes them _____ from equilibrium |
Farther |
Being spontaneous and non spontaneous is ______ dependent |
Temperature |
_____ can change whether something is spontaneous or not |
Catalysts |
The reverse of a spontaneous rxn is a __________ |
Non spontaneous |
Pressure, temp, and use of a catalyst can cause nonspontaneous rxns to become ______ |
Spontaneous |
Non spontaneous does not mean _____ |
Impossible |
Spontaneous does not mean ____ |
Fast |
A process that is spontaneous in one direction is non spontaneous in the _____ direction |
Reverse |
Rxns can be considered spontaneous if they just require ______ energy |
Activation |
Natural tendency is for spontaneous rxns to be ______ |
Exothermic |
In a spontaneous rxn, energy goes from being more concentrated to being more _____ |
dispersed |
Second Law of Thermodynamics: All processes occur spontaneously in the direction that will ______ the disorder of the universe |
increase |
measure of the extent of energy dispersal |
entropy |
the greater the disorder the greater the ____ |
entropy |
When a crystal lattice is broken apart, there is a ____ in entropy |
increase |
Entropy of a solid depends on the _____ holding it together |
strength |
The _____ the attractions, the more the entropy |
weaker |
less vibrations= less _____ |
disorder |
There is _____ disorder in less charge |
more |
The more complex a molecule is, the ______ the entropy |
greater |
When gas disperse into two flasks, there is ____ disorder |
more |
More gas as products, entropy ___ |
increases |
Formation of an aqueous solution if solute is a solid, entropy ___ |
increases |
Formation of a aqueous solution if solute is gas then entropy ___ |
decreases |
If the ionic charge increases, the entropy ______ in ionic solids |
decreases |
Entropy change for universe is sum of: |
entropy change for surroundings + entropy change for system |
If delta S is positive, the process is _____ |
spontaneous |
Third Law: |
the entropy of a pure, perfectly formed crystalline substance is zero at absolute zero (no movement) |
Delta H= ______ to elements |
relative |
delta S= ______, no movement, not related to elements |
absolute |
Entropy is _____ (not related to elements) so elements have values |
absolute |
If a rxn is exothermic and more disorder then its _______ |
spontaneous |
If rxn is endothermic, then disorder of system must ______ if rxn is spontaneous |
increase |
negative delta G is _____ favored |
product |
positive delta G is ____- favored |
reactant |
When delta S is positive they are ______ favored |
ENTROPY |
Free energy is a function of _______ |
temperature |
When delta H is ______ it is enthalpy favored |
negative |
Solvent |
The thing there is more of |
Vant hoff factor |
"Number of ions multiplied by freezing pt depression/boiling pt elevation equation
DeltaT= Kb*m*i" |
Weight % |
(Mass solute)/(mass total) * 100 |
Ppm |
Ratio of solute to solvent. mg solute/kg solvent |
Ppm |
mg solute/kg solution |
Saturated |
Contains the maximum quantity of solute particles that can be dissolved at that temperature |
Super-Saturated |
Contains more solute particles than possible and is highly unstable |
Miscible |
When 2 liquids mix to an appreciable extent to form a solution |
Immicible |
When two liquids don't mix and form a layer of one on top of the other |
Solubility of solids in liquids |
"Like dissolves like"Polar-polar
Non polar-non polar
At higher temp more solid dissolves |
Solubility of gases in liquids |
As pressure increases solubility increasesAs temperature increases solubility decreases |
Henry's Law equation |
Sg=Kh*Pg(Gas solubility)=(Henry's law constant)*(partial pressure of solute) |
Henry's law definition |
The solubility of a gas in liquid is directly proportional to the gas pressure |
Le Chattlier's Principle |
A system at equilibrium or changing towards equilibrium responds in the way that relieves the most stress applied to the system |
Raoults Law definition |
Tells us that the vapor pressure of solvent over a solutionis some fraction of the pure solvent equilibrium vapor pressure |
Raoults law formula |
P_(solution) = X_(Solvent) * P_(solvent) |
Boiling point elevation |
"(delta)Tb=Kb*m_(solute)
(delta)T=T_(solution) - T_(solvent)" |
Freezing point depression |
"(delta)Tf=Kf*m_(solute)
(delta)Tf = T_(solution) - T_(solvent)" |
Osmotic pressure formula |
Pi = c*R*T(c=concentration)(R=gas constant)(T=temp in kelvin) |
Osmosis |
A semipermeable membrane that allows only the movement of solvent particles in order to create two solutions with equal concentrations |
Colloids |
Represent a state of indeterminate between a solution an a suspension
Exhibits the Tyndall effect |
Hydrophobic |
Type of colloidStrongly repels water molecules |
Hydrophillic |
Colloid type
Strongly attracted to water molecules |
Emulsions |
Colloidal dispersions of one liquid in another, like oil in water |
Kinetics |
The study of rates of chemical reactions |
Reaction mechanism |
The detailed pathway taken by atoms and molecules as a reaction proceeds. |
Catalysts |
Speed up reactionLower activation energy
Do not get consumed by reaction but are included in rate law |
Rate constant |
Constant k - units can be found M^(1-(overall order))/s^-1 |
Rate law |
Rate = k[A]^x[B]^y |
Rate Law |
Rate = change in concentration over Change in Time |
First order |
ln[A]t=-kt+ln[A]o
Graph: negative slope straight line
Slope of -k |
Second order |
1/[A]t=kt+1/[A]o
Graph: positive sloping line
Slope of k |
Zeroth order |
[A]t=-kt+[A]o
Graph: parabola with negative sloping tangent lines
Slope of -k |
Half life equation |
t (1/2) = ln(2)/k = 0.693/k |
Arrhenius equation |
k=Ae^(-Ea/RT)The calculation if Ea from the temperature dependence of the rate constant |
Finding activation energy given 2 different k's and T's |
ln(k2/k1) = - Ea/RT*(1/T2-1/T1) |
Rate determining step |
Slowest step in the reaction. Determines how fast the products are formed |
Bimolecular |
2 steps - second order overall |
Termolecular |
3 steps - 3rd order overall |
(delta)H solution = |
"-deltaHlattice + deltaHhydrationOR
products - reactants" |
Disappearance of reactants |
Negative rate |
Appearance of products |
Positive rate |
Key factors for a reaction to take place |
molecules must collide |
Things that affect rate |
"1) frequency of collision2) orientation at collision
3) lower activation energy
4) add catalyst" |
Polar identifiers |
WaterCarbon bonding with molecules with high electronegativities |
Non polar identifiers |
"Molecules are symmetricBonds between carbons and hydrogens
No oxygens
Two molecules being bonded with close proximity on periodic table " |
Gibbs free energy is a ____ function |
state |
S is absolute, so elements are not 0 at standard state, you have to _____ for them |
solve |
if both delta H and delta S are negative it will be spontaneous at ____ temps |
low |
if both delta H and S are positive it will be spontaneous at ____ temp |
high |
delta G and work should be the _____sign |
same |
Demo: thermite, rust and aluminum, raise temperature as you go and end up with ____ ____ |
moltent iron |
solid to gas |
sublimation |
gas to solid |
decomposition |
gas to liquid |
condensation |
liquid to gas |
evaporation |
deca |
10 |
Zinc |
Zn2+ |
Silver |
Ag+ |
Ammonium |
NH4+ |
Carbonate |
CO3 2- |
nitrate |
no3- |
phosphate |
po4 3- |
sulfate |
so4 2- |
chlorate |
CLO3 - |
hydroxide |
OH- |
Acetate |
C2H3O2- |
metal + non metal naming |
metal + root of nonmetal + ide |
non metal non metal naming |
use prefixes |
when solids dissolve, particles break apart and form a loose association with liquid particles, if particles are unable to form links to liquid particles, it will _______ _______ |
not dissolve |
diatomics are all __________ |
nonpolar |
_____ is required to break apart a solid |
energy |
Vapor pressure _____ with temp |
increases |
gases increases solubility with increased ______ |
pressure |
VP is only controlled by ______ not the _____ |
temp, amount |
1 calorie= ____ J |
4.184 |
ANY burning/ combustion is an _____ rxn |
exothermic |
when is i most likely 1? |
nonelectrolyte,nonvolatile, organic solute, polymer |
potential energy is energy associated with _____ |
position |
Enthalpy may be considered the ____ _____ of a system |
heat content |
In a rxn run at constant pressure, the enthalpy change is equal to the _____ ____ as heat |
energy flow |
under most conditions delta h and delta E are _______ |
close |
The vapor pressure of pure water will be ______ than the vapor pressure of a salt water solution |
higher |
The flow across a semi permeable membrane is the _____ going from high concentrated solution toward low concentrated solution |
solute |
energy used to separate ions, which is a positive value |
lattice energy |
driving force of ionic bonding |
lattice energy |
Ionic compounds that have large lattice energies tend to |
be insoluble in water |
the solvent is capable of dissolving more solute |
undersaturated |
solvent contains more solute than it can hold at given temperatures |
overrsaturated |
formed by heating a solution and dissolving more solute and then cooling it slowly, crystallize readily |
oversaturated |
energy, not matter, kinetic energy (particles are moving), can be gained or lost |
heat |
measure of heat/kinetic energy |
temperature |
heat flows always from a ______ body to a ______body |
hotter --> colder |
bond breaking |
endothermic |
bond forming |
exothermic |
Hg, Br |
liquids |
Iodine |
solid |
only ____ solvents cross semi permeable membrane |
pure |
ionization of weak acid is ____ favored |
reactant |
Most chemical reactions occur |
in a series of steps |
zero order integrated rate law |
"[A]t= -kt + [A]0
(straight line on graph)
slope = -K
Half life--> [A]0/2k" |
first-order integrated rate law |
"ln[A]t=ln[A]o-ktln[A]t=ln[A]o-kt
Half life = ln2/k
Slope = -k
Plot ln[A] vs t" |
Second Order Integrated Rate Law |
"1/ [A]t = kt+ 1/[A]0
Plot of 1/[A] vs. t will result in a straight line with slope k
Half Life = 1/[A]0" |