112 Cards in this Set
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radical behaviorism
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only directly observable events, such as stimuli and responses, should constitute the subject matter of psychology
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functional analysis of behavior
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Skinner's approach that attempted to relate measurable environmental events to measurable behavior and bypass cognitive and physiological processes altogether
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types of behavior investigated by behaviorists
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respondent & operant
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respondent behavior
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a specific kind of behavior that is elicited by a specific kind of stimulus
ex: all reflexes and conditioned emotional reactions (e.g., phobias)
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operant behavior
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-behavior that is selected
-operates on environment and produces consequences
ex: complex behaviors like driving a car and playing musical instruments
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principles of Type S conditioning
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(Pavlonian/classical conditioning)
used to stress the importance of the stimulus; a direct link exists between its occurrence and the stimulus that preceded it (a direct stimulus-response association occurs)
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principles of Type R conditioning
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condition of operant behavior
- used to emphasize the importance of response
- Skinner's work was primarily in this area
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types of reinforcers
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primary and secondary
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primary reinforcers
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events that satisfy basic needs of survival (unconditioned)
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secondary reinforcers
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stimuli that are originally biologically neutral but acquires reinforcing qualities through association with primary reinforcers
ex: grades, awards, gifts, privileges
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generalized reinforcer
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secondary reinforcers that do not depend on a particular motivational state (paired with more than one primary reinforcer)
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positive reinforcement
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reinforcement that involves strengthening the tendency to repeat a response by following it with the addition of something pleasant
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Negative Reinforcement
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Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimuli that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
(NOT punishment)
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positive punishment
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a negative reinforcer is added following an undesired behavior and the likelihood of the behavior decreases
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negative punishment
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a positive reinforcer is removed following an undesired behavior and the likelihood of that behavior decreases
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punishment shortcomings
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- outcomes are unpredictable
- may produce undesirable emotional responses
- it indicates only what one should not do & doesn't give info of what one should do
- it justifies inflicting pain on others
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What is involved in the shaping of behaviors?
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- differential reinforcement:only rewarding some behaviors
- successive approximations: rewarding behaviors closer and closer to the ultimate desired outcome
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generalization
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tendency to extend a particular behavior pattern from the situation in which it was originally learned to the other similar situations
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discrimination
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tendency to respond differently depending on the situation; that is, response that is made under one set of circumstances by not under others
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extinction
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withdrawal of reinforcement
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spontaneous recovery
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reappearance of the conditioned response after a pause, which suggests that extinction is actually inhibition rather than elimination of a response
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schedules of reinforcement (rules)
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continous and partial (intermittent)
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continuous reinforcement
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every time the desired response occurs, it gets reinforced (100%)
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partial reinforcement
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only some of the responses are reinforced (two dimensions)
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2 dimensions of partial reinforcement
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interval vs. ratio and fixed vs. variable
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interval
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time since last reinforcement
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ratio
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number of responses
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fixed
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set time period or number of responses
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variable
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changing time period or number or responses
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fixed interval
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always at the same time rather it be weekly or monthly
ex: salaried work
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variable interval
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varies from time to time
ex: pop quizzes
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fixed ratio
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rewards are given after a constant number of actions are performed
ex: commission
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variable ratio
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rewards are given after a variable number of actions are performed (you never really know)
ex: slot machines, getting pregnant --highest rate of responding
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superstitious behavior
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an accidental connection between a reinforcer and a behavior
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non contingent reinforcement
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(reinforcement that occurs regardless of what the organism is doing)
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our biggest problem
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behavior is more easily influenced by SMALL, BUT IMMEDIATE AND DEFINITE reinforcers than it is by LARGE, BUT DISTANT AND UNCERTAIN reinforcers
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how we deal with our biggest problem
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contingency contracting -- making the future immediate
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skinner's version of behavior therapy
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- token economies (desirable behavior is reinforced by tokens that can be exchanged for reinforcers)
- Walden Two (cultural engineering)
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Walden Two
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- childrearing should be communal
- education should be related to practical situations
- work should be productive
- leisure time should be ample
- personal relations should be cooperative and intimate
- sex roles should be egalitarian
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Skinner Criticisms
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Excessive generalization from animals to humans
Radical Environmentalism
Who controls the controllers?
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Skinner Contributions
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Applied Value
Scientifically rigorous explanation of of human behavior
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primary drives
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biologically determined and directly related to survival -- building blocks of personality
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they are biologically determined
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they are biologically determined
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secondary drives
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culturally determined (learned)
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describe Miller's experiment of how fear became an acquired drive
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fear is the most important secondary drive because it is important to adaptive and maladaptive behavior
(stove = hot)
rat shocked white/black room
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habit
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link between a stimulus and response
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response hierarchy
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link between a stimulus and response
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Innate hierarchy of responses
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genetically determined by a set of responses that if triggered by certain drive conditions; no learning involved
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What is the resultant Hierarchy of responses?
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Learning takes place, rearranges hierarchy
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learning dilemma
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a situation in which responses are not reinforced
- no failure..no learning
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instrumental learning
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drive, cue, response, reinforcement
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drive (want something)
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energizes behavior >> it impels action, so it is motivational -- engine (strength)
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cue (notice something)
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guides behavior >> it indicates the appropriate direction an activity should take (when, where, and how to respond) --clock
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response (do something)
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aimed at reducing the drive
- overt (instrumental in reducing a drive)
- internal (cue-producing responses)
- reasoning > solving an immediate problem
- planning > solution of a future problem
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reinforcement (get something)
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equated with drive reduction
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Four critical training situations of childhood
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Feeding: satisfaction of basic need vs fear, loneliness, helplessness
Cleanliness: enjoyment of things pertaining to self vs. fear, anger, guilt
Sexual Behavior: bodily pleasure vs. fear/guilt
Anger and Aggression: self-assertion vs. disapproval, punishment, rejection
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displacement
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act of substituting one goal for another when the primary goal is not available or feared
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frustration-aggression hypothesis
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- interference with goal attainment
- frustration leads to aggression
- original hyp. > aggression is only one possible response to frustration, and aggression has many causes
- modern view > frustration leads to a stress reaction and some persons cope with stress by engaging in counte…
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repressed experiences
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suppression and repression
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suppression
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stopping thoughts that cause anxiety
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repression
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when potentially painful thoughts are aborted automatically (before they enter consciousness)
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Components of neurosis and symptom formation
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the neurotic is stupid and miserable, conflict is the core of neurotic behavior, neurotic develops symptoms that manifestations of repressed conflict, conflict is unconscious are learned in childhood, neurotic conflicts are taught by parents
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functions of psychotherapy
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- provides a way to unlearn maladaptive behaviors
- teaching behavioral coping
- teaching discrimination of cues
- teaching relaxation (drive reduction)
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4 types of conflict
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- approach-approach
- avoidance-avoidance
- approach-avoidance
- double approach-avoidance
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approach approach
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ex: shall I fly first class or take a ship to Europe?
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Avoidance Avoidance
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"damned if you do, damned if you don't"
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approach/avoidance
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one alternative has positive and negative aspects
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double approach avoidance
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ex: the female oedipus complex in Freudian's theory
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Cricitisms of Dollard and Miller
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- unsuccessful synthesis of Hull's & Freud's theory
- overgeneralization from animals to humans
- overly simplistic approach
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contributions of Dollard and Miller
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- synthesis of Hull's and Freud's theory
- scientific rigor
- clear description of therapeutic process
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cognitive social learning theory
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emphasis on a) people as active agents, b) social origins of behavior, c) cognitive (thought) processes, and d) learning complex behavior in the absence of reinforcement
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reciprocal determinism
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behavioral, personal, and environmental factors constitute a system that mutually influence one another over time
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5 Cognitive social person variables
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Encoding Strategies
Expectancies
Subjective Values
Competencies
Self-Regulatory Systems
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encoding strategies
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how we see (categorize) experience
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expectancies
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what a person anticipates in a situation or as a result of behaving in certain ways
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behavior-outcome expectancy
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"what should I expect if I act this way?"
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stimulus-outcome expectancy
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"What should I expect to see next?"
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subjective values
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what is worth having or doing
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competencies
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what we know and are capable of doing (tools: skills, concepts, and problem solving)
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self-regulatory systems and plans
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how do we attain our goals..
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How is behavior self regulated?
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- performance standards
intrinsic: self approval and self criticism
- goals and plans
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Self-Efficacy
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Belief in one's ability to do a task
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sources of information about self-efficacy
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performance attainment > prior success strengthens one's perceived self-efficacy
- vicarious experiences > if they can do it so can i
- verbal persuasion > encouragement from others
- physiological/emotional arousal > how fearful or calm we are in a given situation
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Self-exonerating mechanisms
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- Moral justification
- Euphemistic Labeling
- Advantageous Comparison
- Displacement of responsibility
- Diffusion of responsibility
- Disregard of consequence
- Dehumanization
- Attribution of blame
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Moral justification
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ex: when invading/occupying another country is framed as national security
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euphemistic labeling
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ex: employers "downsizing", referring to torture as "enhanced interrogation, genocide becomes "ethnic cleansing"
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advantegous comparison
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ex: promoters of Vietnamese war minimized the slaying of Indochinese by US soldiers as a way of checking massive communist enslavement
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displacement of responsibility
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ex: Nazi soldiers saying "i did it because I was ordered to"
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diffusion of responsibility
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ex: collective crimes incriminate no one
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disregard or distortion of consequences
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ex: the tobacco industry denying that their product is harmful
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Dehumanization
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to deprive of human qualities / attributes
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Attribution of Blame
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Blaming women for being raped
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How Bandura studied learning by observation
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The Bobo doll experiment
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vicarious reinforcement
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comes from observing the positive consequences of another person's behavior
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vicarious punishment
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comes from observing the negative consequences of another person's behavior
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How did Bandura distinguish learning from performance?
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In the second phase of his experiment, he rewarded children with stickers and juice to re enact what was done to the bobo doll.
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Symbolic Modeling
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Imitating behaviors displayed by characters in books, plays, movies, or tv
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What are the important factors in learning?
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Attention - observing the model
Retention - remembering what the model did
>> mental images, verbal instructions, delayed modeling
Motor Reproduction - doing what the model did
Motivation - wanting it
>> reinforcement, incentive
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What is the major goal of psychotherapy?
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*Participant modeling (live model with participation)
*Symbolic modeling
*Systematic Desensitization (muscle relaxation techniques and imagining a series of interrelated anxiety-provoking scenes until they no longer cause anxiety)
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Most effective method to address dysfunctional problems such as phobias
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participant modeling (where live model walks through the steps of the fear and the person participates step by step)
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What was Mischel's conclusion regarding the consistency of human behavior?
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human behavior is not as consistent as we think it is
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Mischel's personality coefficient
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(r= .30)
trait paradigm
- assumes stability across time and situation
- cannot predict situation-specific behavior
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the consistency paradox
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discrepancy between intuition and empricial findings
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delay of gratification
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delaying what you desire in the moment in order to get something more desirable in the long term
ability to delay increases with:
- age
- intelligence
- shorter intervals of delay
- modeling
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Mischel Criticisms
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- Mental event's can't cause behavior (only environment)
- Important aspects of personality neglected (biology)
- Lack of unification
- Unfair to psychoanalytic theory
- Behavior more consistent than he claims
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Bandura & Mischel contributions
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Emphasis on human empirical research
Applied value
extremely heuristic
vital information
how to correct dysfunctional expectancies
importance of perceived self-efficiency
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Darwin's theory of evolution
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- struggle for existence
- adaptation
- natural selection
- sexual selection
- survival of fittest
- inclusive fitness
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survival of the fittest
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only those organisms that are best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce
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adaptation
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any physiological structure, trait, or behavior pattern that facilitates adaptation --survival and reproduction
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natural selection
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environmental demands determine which organisms survive and reproduce and which don't
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sexual selection
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explains traits that cannot be explained by natural selection
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difference between fitness and inclusive fitness
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fitness can be increased by leaving offspring and by helping close relative survive and reproduce
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PSY 233: EXAM 2