77 Cards in this Set
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Social Cognition
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A movement in social psychology that began in the 1970s that focused on thoughts about people and about social relationships
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Schemas
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knowledge structures that represent substantial information about a concept, its attributes, and its relationships to other concepts
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Heuristics
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mental shortcuts used to make decisions
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Cues
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...
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Goals of Thinking
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1. People want to find the RIGHT answer to some problem or question.
2. To confirm the DESIRED answer to a problem.
3. To reach a reasonable answer QUICKLY
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Dual processes for thinking
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*Automatic thought
*Controlled/Conscious (Deliberate) thought
*Practice makes automatic
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First Impressions
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Impressions of others' personality traits:
- automatic and effortless
- based off behavior, physical appearance
- salient cues: CUES activate schemas
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Group Membership
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In-group/out-group distinction: "us" vs. "them"
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Perception of Others
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People who agree with us we associate with positive things (intelligence, honesty, etc.)
People who disagree with us we associate with negative things (unintelligent, dishonest, etc.)
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Perception of Others II
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We interpret ambiguous behavior based on stereotypic expectations
- Time pressure increases this tendency
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Attributions
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the casual explanations people give for their own and others' behaviors, and for events in general
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Effects of our Attributions
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Controllable - anger - punishment/refusal to help
Uncontrollable - pity - helping/pro-social behavior
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Effects of our Attributions II
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Our reactions to people are often ambivalent (mixed emotions)
- attributions: require thought
- impressions: automatic
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Automatic Reactions to stigmatized people
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Negative (aversion/disgust)
- When stigma is controllable we continue to avoid and devalue (even over time)
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Persuasion Tactics
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1. Reciprocity
2. Commitment & Consistency
3. Social Proof
4. Liking
5. Authority
6. Scarcity
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Door-in-the-face (reciprocity)
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Ask for something you expect to be rejected, counter with what you really want
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That's-not-all (reciprocity)
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Adding something "for free"
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
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- Inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort
- To reduce discomfort, people rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes
- Often choose path of least resistance
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Foot-in-the-door (commitment and consistency)
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Start small, ask for increasingly larger favors
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Low-ball technique (C&C)
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Give you a low price first, then ratchet things up (illegal)
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Bait and Switch (C&C)
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Advertise one product then offer a different one (illegal?)
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Labeling Technique (C&C)
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"Smart people use this product" - you're smart right?
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Legitimization (C&C)
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"Every little donation helps!"
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Authority
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We are persuaded more by people who have credibility
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Social Proof
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"Everyone else is doing it!" as an argument for persuasion
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Liking
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We are more persuaded by people we like (i.e. mood, similarity)
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Scarcity
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- Limited number technique ("Only 4 left in stock!"
- Fast approaching deadline ("Call in the next 10 minutes..." or "Sale ends tomorrow")
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Critical Thinking
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- Distraction prevents C.T.
- Lack of resources makes C.T. and counter-arguing difficult
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Resisting Persuasion
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Takes effort, knowledge, and ability to critically analyze messages
- Inoculation: buildup reserves of counter-arguments
- Forewarning: "forewarning is forearmed"
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How to Resist Persuasion
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1. THINK!
2. Understand how/why tactic is working
3. Ask "do I really want to do this or am I doing this to please someone else?"
4. Wait a few hours
5. Point out the compliance tactic to compliance professional
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Social Influence
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People affecting other people
- compliance/persuasion
- obedience
- conformity
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Influences on conformity
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- Group size
- Unanimity
- Normative vs. Informational Influence (ambiguous or crisis situations)
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What topic do people spend the greatest amount of time thinking about?
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People
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Which of the following elements does NOT distinguish automatic from deliberate thought processes? Awareness, Efficiency, Effort, or Relevance
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Relevance
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During their first year of medical school, many medical students begin to think that they and other people they know are suffering from serious illness. This phenomenon, known as medical student syndrome, is probably due to ____.
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Priming
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Self-serving Bias
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The tendency to take credit for success but deny blame for failure
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Explanations for Fundamental Attribution Error
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-Behavior is more noticeable than situational factors
- People assign insufficient weight to situational causes even when they are made aware of them
- People are cognitive misers
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According to Bertram Malle, what is the most important dimension people use when making attributions about the behavior of others?
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Intentional/accidental
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The strategy of judging the likelihood of things by how well they match particular prototypes constitutes the ___ heuristic.
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Representativeness
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People's greater fear of flying than of driving can probably be best explained by the ___ heuristic.
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Availability
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"If only I hadn't driven home from work using a different route, then my car would not have been hit in the rear by that other driver" most clearly reflects
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Counterfactual thinking
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Anchoring and Adjustment
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the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by using a starting point (called an anchor) and then making adjustments up or down
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The current view of attributions assumes that people try to explain the behavior or others they start by focusing on ___ actions
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intended vs. unintended
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Which of the following standard views of heuristic thinking may be incorrect based on the current evidence? Automatic, Effortless, Flawed, Quick
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Flawed
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According to the standard view, people think in order to find ___
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- The truth
- An answer that will be persuasive to others
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Gamblers who throw dice softly to get low numbers and who throw harder to get high numbers are demonstrating ____
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The illusion of control
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Regression to the Mean
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the tendency for extreme data points to regress back towards the average
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Downward counterfactuals
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imagining alternatives that are worse than actuality
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What system is mainly responsible for the cognitive errors that people make?
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Automatic system
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People make fewer cognitive errors when they are making decisions about ___
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Very serious matters (ex: survival and reproduction)
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Which type of graduate training that teaches statistical reasoning is most effective in reducing cognitive errors?
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Psychology
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The analysis of cognitions is called ___
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Meta-cognition
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Pieces of information (facts or opinions) about something
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Beliefs
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Global Evaluation
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Attitude
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Fast evaluation is to slow evaluation as ___ is to ___
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Automatic attitude, deliberate attitude
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Dual attitudes refer to ___ and ___ attitudes
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Automatic, deliberate
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Operant Conditioning
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A type of learning in which people are more likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and less likely to repeat behaviors that have been punished
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Social Learning
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A type of learning in which people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing them, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing them
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Summary of the basic idea underlying effort justification
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suffering leads to liking
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LaPiere questionnaire to establishments about serving Chinese
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Less than 10% said they would accommodate them
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What did Wicker conclude about the relationship between attitudes and behaviors
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It is so weak that the concept of attitudes should be abandoned
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According to Gordon Allport, what is the most important concept in Psychology?
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Attitudes
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Which is faster, believing or disbelieving?
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Believing
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Even social psychologists are resistant to give up pet theories even if there is data contradicting them. This tendency is called
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Belief perserverance
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Assumptive World Belief
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The view that people live in social worlds based on certain beliefs (assumptions) about reality
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Downward Comparison
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The act of comparing oneself to people who are worse off
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Information Influence
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going along with the crowd because you think the crowd knows more than you do
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Autokinetic Effect
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illusion of perceived movement
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Public compliance
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type of conformity based on a fear of social rejection
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Private Acceptance
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a genuine inner belief that others are right
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Sleeper Effect
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the finding that, over time, people separate the message from the messenger
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Peripheral Route
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the route to persuasion that involves some simple cue, such as attractiveness of the source
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
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distractions prevent people from engaging in central route processing of information
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Psychiatrists predicated that ___ participants would go all the way in Milgram's experiment, giving the maximum shock level to the confederate
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1 in 1,000
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Obedience
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Following orders from an authority figure
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The results from Milgram's experiment are generally taken to show that ___
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Situational pressure can overwhelm individual differences
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Conformity
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the tendency for people to go along with the crowd
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PSY 223: EXAM 2