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BIOL 1103K: EXAM III

Muscles generate movement by ______
shortening
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Exoskeleton
external "case" example phylum: Arthropoda
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Endoskeleton
hard, internal "frame"; commonly bone
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Hydrostatic
a liquid skeleton
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3 types of skeletons
exoskeleton, endoskeleton, hydrostatic
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Antagonistic muscles
oppose each other to move the skeleton; in pairs; attach to opposite sides of the exoskeleton, across the middle of the joint ex: Biceps and Triceps; as to contract your triceps relaxes while the Biceps contracts to lift your arm
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Tendons
bin muscle to bone
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Ligaments
Bind bone to bone at joints
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Flexor
contraction of a flexor muscle bends a joint
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Extensor
contraction of a extensor muscle straightens a joint
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Hydrostatic skeletons
- rely on hydraulic pressure to move - Antagonists: longitudinal and circular muscles - example: worms
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If the quadriceps muscle in your leg is nonfuctional, what would you expect?
You could not straighten your leg
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3 types of vertebrate muscle
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
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Skeletal
voluntary muscle; well defined structure, also called striated (striped) muscle
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Cardiac
involuntary muscle; only in the heart; similar to skeletal muscle; well-defined structure
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Smooth
involuntary muscle; digestive tract, blood vessels, reproductive tract; loosely arranged; contraction can be stimulated by stretching
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Muscle fibers
muscle cells are called muscle fibers; contain many myofibrils
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Myofibrils
Myofibrils
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Sarcomeres
repeating units of actin and myosin proteins
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Sliding filament theory
Explains sarcomere contraction between muscles -- myosin filaments slides along actin, shortening the muscle -- ATP is necessary
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Contraction in 4 steps
Reach, reattach, pull detach
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Reach
myosin breaks ATP into ADP, energy used to extend the myosin head
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Reattach
myosin binds to actin
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Pull
myosin snaps backward, shortening the sarcomere
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Detach
myosin binds ATP and releases actin
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Soon after death, bodies stiffen. Why does this occur?
Relaxation of muscles requires ATP. Without ATP, the muscle stiffens.
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Neuromuscular junction
synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber 1. neuron releases the neurotransmitter 2. action potential (electrical signal) spreads across membrane of the muscle fiber 3. Contraction
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Calcium
is essential for contraction and is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
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The nervous system controls
contraction of skeletal muscles
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Muscles will continue to contract until they run out of
1) Calcium 2) ATP
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Muscle Fiber Types
fast twitch, slow twitch
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Fast twitch
larger diameter, stronger contraction, fatigue quickly
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Slow twitch
thin, more mitochondria, myoglobin, weaker contraction more endurance
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Cardiac muscle powers
the heart; cardiac muscle is found only in the heart - smaller than most skeletal muscle cells, and possess only a single nucleus in each cell
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Cardiac muscle fibers are connected to one another by
intercalated discs -- strong cell-to-cell attachments within the discs hold cardiac muscle fibers firmly to one another, preventing the forces of contraction from pulling them apart
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If you were to treat a muscle with a drug that prevented release of calcium from the SR, what would happen?
The muscle would not be able to contract
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Single nucleus
cardiac muscles and smooth muscles
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Smooth muscle fibers are directly connected
by gap junctions, allowing the cells to contract in synchrony
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Botox and muscle paralysis
prevents muscle contraction
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Myostatin
- regulates growth of muscle tissue - knockouts of Myostatin gene have twice the musculature - potential for abuse
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Working unit of the skeletal muscle is
the sacromere
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Nerves control skeletal muscle by
- releasing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions
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Release of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum
Release ofacilitates binding of myosin to actin
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We need 6 different types of nutrients
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water
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1 calorie
heat needed to raise 1 g H2O 1°C
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kilocalorie (kcal)
1000 calories; Calorie
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Fats
contain >2 times the amount of energy than an equal amount of carb's - good for energy storage - slowly accessed - 9c/4c (per 1gr)
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Carbs
- rapidly accessed - stored in small quantities by animals - Glycogen -- short-term energy reservoir
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Carbohydrates
•include sugars such as glucose, from which cells derive most of their energy; sucrose (table sugar); and polysaccharides, long chains of sugar molecules •Cellulose, starch, and glycogen are all polysaccharides composed of chains of glucose
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Protein
- amino acids - proteins form muscle, connective tissue, nails and hair
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Excess energy
is stored as glycogen and fat - utilized when fod is limited
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Kwashiorkor
sever malnutrition characterized by swelling
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Rickets
vitamin D deficiency - soft deformed bones
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Scurvy
vitamins C deficiency; skin, tooth, gum, and blood vessel damage
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Goiter
iodine deficiency
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Minerals
can only be obtained in the diet or dissolved in drinking water
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Digestion of cellulose
- animals cannot digest cellulose - requires bactieral activity
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Ruminants
- animals that chew the cud - 4 chambered-stomach - coughing up and chewing cud helps break up woody materials
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4 steps to extracting nutrients from food
- ingestion - digestion - absorption - elimination
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Epiglottis
a flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the windpipe; blocks food entry to the trachea
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Digestion in the stomach
- mechanical digestion - chemical digestion - enzymatic digestion by protein --- stomach absorbs very little
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The small intestine is assisted by 3 other organs
- pancreas - lived - gall bladder
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Digestion finishes
in small intestine
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Pancreas
secretes juices into the small inestine - bicarbonate -- neutralizes stomach acid - enzymes -- break down food
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Majority of chemical digestion occurs in
small intestine
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Liver produces
bile; bile is stored in gall bladder
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Bile acts like a detergent. How does this aid in digestion of fats
It separates fat into smaller particles that have greater surface area accessible to fat-digesting enzymes
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Absorption begins in the
small intestine
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Gut bacteria
60% of dry mass feces is bacteria
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Celiac disease
intolerance to gluten
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Blood enters each kidney through a
renal artery
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Blood exits the kidney through a
renal vein
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Renal Cortex
the outermost layer of each kidney where urine is formed
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Renal pelvis
"kidney bucket" collects urine and conducts it into the ureter
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Ventricles force blood directly into
arteries
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Ureter
a narrow, muscular tube that contracts rhythmically to propel the urine to the bladder
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Bladder
a hollow, muscular chamber that collects and stores urine
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The avg adult bladder ca hold about
a pint of urine
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Urine exits the body through the
urethra
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Nephrons
microscopic filters in the human kidney
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Glomerulus
capillary network of lying inside the glomerular capsule and functioning in filtration
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Two major parts of nephron
- fluid filtered out of the blood through the porous capillary walls - collects fluid filtered out of the blood
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Bowman's capsule
cuplike chamber which surrounds the glomerulus and collects fluid filtered out of the blood
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Which molecule contains a binding site for the attachment of myosin heads?
Actin
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The site of communication between a neuron and muscle fiber is called a
neuromuscular junction
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The most abundant cell type in blood is the
Erythorocytes (red blood cells)
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which mineral is important for carrying O2 in the blood
iron
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