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COMM 306: EXAM 1
why organizational com is important to study & learn
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need to understand how communication functions in an organization
important for communicating with supervisors, peers and coworkers
help you realize when organizations are doing things incorrectly
-three major reasons:
1. helpful for understanding organizations
2. awareness of skills.
3. understanding career opportunities |
understanding organizations
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-organizations created through communication: they are not existent without communication members that communicate with each other
-allows for understanding communication occurring in organizations
-helps rationalize organizational experiences- why they were successful or
why they failed, helps make sense of previous experiences and for future.
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awareness of skills
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-organizations expect employees to be competent in communication skills. --interacting with customers and other employees etc
-communication skills can make or break a career-- lacking skills can make it unable to share different perspectives or emphasize with people.
i.e.: less likely to work through conflict in organizations.
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communication competency: knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values
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developed through interaction of theory, practice, and analysis.
knowledge: ability to understand organizational comm environment, ability to experience something, understand it, approve upon it or achieve it.
sensitivity: ability to accurately assess organizational meanings. understanding lingo (PNM)
skills: ability to analyze organizational situations. see how they can be improved upon.
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skills |
-intervene: some sort of mediation or improvement to a problem that is happening. i.e. 2 coworkers arguing.
-Assess: make sense of things that occur & figure out how they can be improved upon by your own actions.
values: importance of taking responsibility for effective communication to create an excellent organization. |
career opportunities
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-link between organizational effectiveness & comm
effectiveness: the better the organization employees are communicating, the better the organization is running.
-communication effectiveness impacts organizational functioning. -managers want to hire those who can positively impact the organization
-thorough education in communication is best for career using communication skills.
-plays a role in communication career opportunities |
defining the study & practice of organizational communication |
-organizations created to achieve goals.
-organizations change history. --government organizations & technology
-organizational comm is a dynamic process. transactional process & continuous always going
-misunderstandings can and will occur. bc comm is such a complex process it is difficult for us to share meaning between encoders and
decoders. |
researching organizational communication |
-examines flow of messages in organizations.
-explore role of emotions in decision-making.
-study relationships in organizations.
-creation and maintenance of workplace democracy
-impact of communication traits on individual and organizational outcomes. i.e. verbal aggressiveness |
defining organizational communication |
-"the study of sending and receiving messages that create and maintain a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of 2 or more
people"
-***"a complex and continuous process through which organizational members create, maintain, and change the organization" (Keyton, 2011)
-"the balancing of creativity and constraint" |
defining organizational communication
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-inherent features of organizational com: organizational communication as a process
ongoing interaction without a beginning or end. |
organizational communication as people
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individuals bring distinguishing
characteristics that influence how messages are sent and received.
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organizational communication as meaning |
creates and shapes
organizational events.
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organizational communication as messages |
creation and exchange and linkage of information.
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organizational communication as purpose
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accomplishing goals by
coordinating, planning, controlling (rules & punishments), and organizing.
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business communication & managerial communication
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-business communication: emphasis on developing and improving employee skill sets.
-managerial communication: focus placed on concepts and skills managers need to fulfill responsibilities. |
corporate communication & organizational communication
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-corporate communication: emphasis on external image and communication of organizations to shareholders.
-organizational communication: encompasses all elements of organization. accounts for employee & managerial experiences.
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history of organizational communication |
-organization activities have been studied for many years.
-became identifiable in 1950s
-convergence of business speech and industrial communication
-general academic acceptance gained in 1967.
-struggled with identity in 1980s
-gaining identity led to further development. |
defining organizations
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-individuals all have membership in organizations.
-created & sustained though com & interaction of employees.
-constructed through ongoing convos of members.
-"dynamic system of organizational members influenced by external stakeholders who communicate within and across organizational
structures in a purposeful way to achieve a major goal." i.e.: collections of ppl working together to achieve common goals through communication. |
defining organizations: structure |
-framework for organizations
-emerge and formulated through communication |
defining organizations: Hierarchy |
vertical levels of organization. i.e.: managers: supervisors,
employees.
-distribution of authority among roles and positions.
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defining organization: Differentiation and specialization:
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division of labor into units,
departments, and divisions to perform tasks.
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defining organization: formalization
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degree to which interactions in organization are characterized by rules, regulations, and norms.
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defining organization: time orientation
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effects flow of work and planning. i.e. organizations that have different shifts such as the answering service
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defining organization: culture
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-set of artifacts, values, and assumptions that emerge from interactions of organizational members.
artifacts: visible or tangible features of organizational experience.
values: common beliefs and priorities of organizational members
assumptions: taken-for-granted beliefs entrenched in experiences. like walking into a classroom and sitting down being quiet.
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why theory?
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-definition: systematically related ideas used to describe, predict, and/or explain phenomena.
-nothing as practical as a good theory.
-practical foundation for understanding phenomena.
-theory informs practice, practice informs theory |
background thinking of classical approach
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-industrial revolution changed economy: when ppl went from farming to factories for the economy.
-models of organization based on military and Catholic Church.
-foundational to present knowledge of organizations.. 1860s-now
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machine metaphor
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-components of machine:
-predictability: confidence in expected functioning.
-standardization: easily found replacements.
-specialization: each portion plays a precise role.
-workers considered machines.- human beings were treated poorly and were there to do a job rather than to be a human.
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taylors theory of scientific management
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-concerned with maximizing profits for organizations.
-taylor noted the inefficiency of work. -realized people were slow and inefficient.
systematic soldiering: social pressure to perform less work and keep wages high.
-causes of systematic soldiering: workers belief that increased work would decrease work force
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Taylor's theory 2:
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-piecework pay: employees paid set wage for production.
-rate busting: quicker production, but was pressure into doing work more slowly bc ppl got mad at them.
-rule-of-thumb methods: poor training that was unstandardized. -apprenticeship
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taylor study: elements of scientific method
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-scientific design of every aspect of task
-time and motion studies: absorbed the time it took ppl to perform tasks and the form they used
-careful selection and training of best workers
-scientifically choose suitable workers to do tasks.
-managers ensure workers could perform tasks.
-proper remuneration for fast excellent work (ppl should be compensated to give motivation to work)
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taylor study: elements of scientific method 2
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-workers should improve production from 30-100%
-workers taught how to perform quickly.
-equal division of work and responsibility
-manager plans, trains, & evaluates worker.
-workers should only be doing manual labour & perform tasks.
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fayol's administrative theory
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-prescription for how management should function
-principles of structure: how the organization should be arranged.
-principles of organizational power: who should be in charge
-principles of organizational reward- how employees should be rewarded.
-principles of organization attitude: how employees should feel in the organization
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principles of structure
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-Scalar Chain: strict vertical hierarchy & communication
-Gangplank: horizontal link between employees.
-unity of command: orders received from one supervisor.
-unity of direction: similar activities- same manager.
-order: each employee has specified role.
-span of control: managers work best with smaller number of employees working underneath them.
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principles of organizational power
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-centralization: decisions made at top of hierarchy.
-authority and responsibility: managers hold power based on position to tell employee what to do
-discipline: employees should be obedient and listen to manager
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principle of organizational reward
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-remuneration of personnel: employees should be paid fairly.
-equity: employees should be treated fairly with justice.
-tenure stability: guarantee of sufficient time period to be productive. -too much stability can be counter productive.
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webber's theory of bureaucracy
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-theory about how the ideal organization should function.
-ideal and pure form of organization- organizations should be free from outside influences.
-effective organization functions with rules and rationality.
-theorized three types of authority:
traditional
charismatic
rational-legal
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traditional authority
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-based on past customs and ways of doing things prior
-employees loyal because of legitimate position
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charismatic authority
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-leadership achieved through charming characteristics, less about skills more about how they connect with mangers and higher ups
-loyalty is achieved through influence and passion.
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rational-legal authority
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-based on rational application of rules or laws. achieve power based upon procedures that have been put in place.
-leaders achieve power based on skill and legitimacy
-preferred form of authority.
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weber's theory of bureaucracy: Tenets of Bureaucracy
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-Rules: plans to cover all possible contingencies, aka dg with a death or "crisis"
-Specified sphere of competence: expectation of good work with leeway to do it.
-Hierarchy: strict chain of command with directive communication.
-specialized training: competent employees achieve status.
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Webber's theory of Bureaucracy: tenets of Bureaucracy 2
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-no ownership of technology: no nonhuman form of production possessed by employees.
-everything written down: all occurrences placed in writing.
-maintenance of ideal type: proper functioning ensured
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background to humanistic approaches
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-classical approaches gradually fell out of favor w/ managers and scholars.
-new approaches were utilized focusing on making employees happy so they would be productive.
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human relations theory
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-shift in emphasis from task to worker.
-worker can meaningfully contribute if managers cared about them
-social relationships recognized as heart of organization
-happy worker is productive worker.
-organization viewed as family, metaphor for human relations= family.
-movement began with Hawthorne Studies (1924-1932)
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illumination study
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-purpose was to explore impact of light on production
-group 1 worked w/ stable lighting conditions
-group 2 worked with varying levels of light
-results: production increased for BOTH groups.
-led to curiosity about human behavior at work
-hawthorns effect: workers feel important when watched and thats why they worked hard (thus making them both increase)
-conclusion: workers worked harder bc managers were watching them, nothing to do w/ lighting.
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relay assembly room study
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-purpose was to further explore behavior with 5 experienced female workers.
-several factors were changed and production observed.-hours worked, days worked, incentives, rest, supervision, informal talk.
-results: production & satisfaction improved regardless of what changes were made
-implications: supervisor attention and peer comm noticed & made them more productive.
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Which theory did scholars really begin to pay attention to how coworker communication & relationship to production outcome?
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relay assembly room study
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interviewing program
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-purpose: was to further explore supervisor communication and employee morale.
-results: employees had forum to express views, lead to feelings cared about
-implications: employees appreciated that and worked harder bc their feelings were taking into consideration. they appreciated expressing
views and perspectives.
-upward communication was valued
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bankwiring room observation
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-pupose: was to explore influence of peer coworkers.
-results: coworkers exerted informal influences to keep production down.
-implications: emergence of informal communication
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McGregor's theory x and theory y
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managers had certain ways of viewing employees, can either view them
in a theory x way (lazy/ incapable) or theory y way (capable of doing jobs).
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theory x:
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classical management assumptions - parts of a machine
-average worker dislikes work and will work to avoid it.
-workers must be coerced into working- some sort of punishment they want to avoid to make them want to work.
-workers prefer to be told what to do to avoid responsibility.
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theory y:
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human relations assumptions- good workers.
-using brain and ability to work are natural, naturally will do good work.
-workers can show direction and initiative toward work.
-commitment to goals is related to rewards.
-workers seeks and accepts responsibility.
-most employees have creativity
-workers are only being partially utilized.
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human resources
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distinct from human relations-- insuring the cognitive well being of the employees
-actually considering the employees as a resource for the group.
-impetus: feeling that employees need more than attention
-managers misused factors of human relations principles: human relations about productivity first
-human resources about cultivating employee potential
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Blake & Moutons Managerial Grid
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-assesses managerial efforts
-ranges from 1(very low)- 9(very high)
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system theory foundations:
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-less prescriptive than previous theories.
-focuses on analytical framework of organization
-looks at organization as whole entity.
-takes a broader view of organizations and connections.
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systems framework
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-orginated with Ludwig Von
-focuses on work and relationships was limited.
-organizations views as organism--living breathing entity in an environment.
-Usefulness of Systems Approach
--designed to deal with complexity.
--attempts to precisely examine how organizational functions relate.
--takes a holistic view of organizations: makes it easier to look at it from bird's eye view.
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principles of systems theory:
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-system: set of elements that interact to create an object.
-open system: objects that allow information to flow in and out of system.
-Closed system: objects exchange no information with outside environment.
-relevant environment: entities outside of an object necessary for survival.
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principles of systems theory: system components
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-assemblage of parts in organization.
-Hierarchical Ordering: arrangement of systems into subsystems & supersystems.
-Interdependence: functioning of 1 component relies on functioning of another. cooks need servers
-permeability: degree to which organisms allow info to cross boundaries. --boundaries: portion of organism that separates it from environment.
-Organizations require flow of information w/ environment to survive.
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principles of system theory: system processes
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-exploration of the functioning of a system.
-input: material, resources, energy, info brought into organization from environment.
-Throughput: transformation of it. use it in order to create knowledge
-Output: returning it to environment.
-Feedback: facilitates interaction interdependent functioning of systems components. i.e.: hearing back about how your organization did and using it to make change
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positive feedback
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information used to change organizations for the better
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negative feedback
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information used to maintain status quo (not actually negative) |
principles of systems theories: system properties
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-emerge from interaction of processes & components.
-Holism (nonsummativity) system is more than sum of parts.
-Equifinality: multiple ways to achieve one outcome. i.e.: football- you can pass or run for a touchdown.
-negative entropy: ability for organizations to sustain themselves & grow
-requisite variety: internal workings of system must match complexity of the environment.
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principles of systems theory: role of communication
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--Glue between systems & environments.
--Adaptive mechanism: exchange relevant info w/
environment
---Boundary spanners: people who have contact w/ variety of systems & environment.
--Maintenance function: provides for flow of info among subsystems. i.e.: email
---Meetings, memos. email all provide means for coordination.
---Helps maintain homeostasis or internal balance.
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contingency theory
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-Assumes no best way to structure or manage organization.
-Structure and style depend on environment.
-Two different styles of management, but no optimum (one best way)
1. Mechanistic
2. Organic
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mechanistic
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useful when environment is stable with little change.
--Specialization, clearly defined roles, vertical communication.
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Organic |
useful when environment changes rapidly and unstable conditions.
--Specialized tasks are interdependent with other specialized tasks. new learning can always be involved.
--Jobs and tasks are continually refined.
--Communication flows in all directions.
--Information is commodity (power).
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Basics of Critical Theory
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-Organizations viewed as political systems/ site of domination.
--Different interest groups compete for control.
Goals of critical theory:
--Make organization more participatory.
--Responsive to needs of multiple shareholders.
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Historical Framework of Critical Theory
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Based in works of Karl Marx
-Interested in relationship between owners & workers in capitalist society.
-Imbalance of power (between employees and owners) would lead to revolt.
-Believed in emancipation & freedom
--Communist Manifesto: shackled people should break free & claim what is rightfully theirs.
-Progressed by Frankfurt School
--Interested in enlightening constrained individuals.
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historical framework of critical theory 2
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-Organizational scholars took interest in the 1970s.
--Explore constraint of workers based on social and technological
structures.
--Common beliefs of Critical Scholars **
1. Certain societal structures lead to power imbalance.
2. Power imbalance leads to alienation and oppression for certain
groups.
3. Scholars uncover power imbalances and inform the oppressed
group
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organizations as sites of domination |
-Critical theory metaphor
-Interest of privileged is valued over commoners.
-Organizations used to exploit employees.
--Work hazards.
--Diseases.
--Accidents.
--Stress.
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Essentials of critical theory:
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1. power
2. ideology
3. Concertive Control
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Power
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imposing one's will on behaviors of others.
--Traditional: control over resources, or position.
--Interpretive: emerges through interaction of members.
--Radical-critical: deep structures produce and reproduce relationships in organization.
---Accounts for economic, social, and communicative relationships and their affect on power imbalances.
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Ideology: deeply held assumptions about social realities
--Taken-for-granted assumptions that guide behavior. 4 functions:
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1. Representation of sectional interest as universal-ones in power speak for the rest.
2. The denial of contradictions- loss of individualism. organizational members loose a part of themselves
3. Naturalization of present through reification-things that are socially constructed are discussed as if they are real. dg thinking they're a gov.---elements are discussed as real or objective.
4. Means of control---Hegemony: members reinforce subordination
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Concertive Control
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group members reinforce values & vision of upper
management to guide behavior.
--Form of unobtrusive control --Two features:
1. Identification: merging of individual and collective- define yourself based upon organization membership.
2. Discipline: rewards & punishment developed by members to account for conformity or deviation from values.
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Critical Theory & Technology
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-Technology useful for maintaining power of elite few.
--Tethering: constant connection w/ organization through technology. dg emails.
--Monitoring employees: watching employees.
---Reasons for monitoring: companies feel they have the right to do so. employees are their property
----Allows for quality control: members are being productive.
----Track down misuse of technology.
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Employee Resistance
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-Defending/distancing self from power of org.
-Useful for dealing with constraints of workplace.
-Can take several forms. very broad.
--Social Movements: creating sub groups to rise against powerful elite:--Boycott--Strikes--Absenteeism
--Dissent: expression of disagreement or contradictory opinions aboutorganizations practices, policies, and operations.
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(blank) communication is the process of creating, exchanging,
interpreting, and storing messages within a system of human
interrelationships.
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organizational
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(blank) is a component of organizational structure that deals with the vertical levels of the organization and the distribution of authority among roles and positions.
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Hierarchy
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The (blank) brought about the need for classical management theories.
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industrial revolution
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