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BIO 1050 Study Guide
Sex-linked genes |
any gene located on a sex choromosome |
Genotype |
an organism's alleles |
phenotype |
the trait an organism shows |
homozygous dominant |
2 dominant alleles |
heterozygous |
1 dominant, 1 recessive alleles |
Heterozygous |
Two alleles in the gene pair are different. |
homozygous recessive |
2 recessive alleles |
carriers |
1 recessive allele for disease, no symtoms |
crossing over |
exchange of genetic mateiral between homologous chromosome |
nondisjunction |
members of chromosome pair fail to sperate in meiosis |
zygote |
a fertilized egg |
placenta |
an organ formed by mom's body and embryo |
placenta |
develops the uterus |
egg formation |
begins in the female fetus and pauses until puberty |
Codon |
3 RNA base group that codes for a specific amino acid. |
Transcription |
DNA to RNA |
Translation |
RNA to proteins |
Parsimony |
Always trying to fidn the simplest explanation or description of events. |
Convergence |
When things are simlar but DID NOT come from a common ancestor. |
Homozygous |
Two alleles in the gene pair are the same. (RR) (rr) |
Short Tandem Repeats |
DNA scattered throughout the genome that do not code for genes. |
Phytoremediation |
Use of plants to clena up environmental pollution. |
Eutrophication |
Increasing rates of plant growth and ecay due to excessive amount of nutrients. |
Food Chain |
Primary-Secondary-Tertiary-Quaternary. |
Biomagnification |
Concentration of toxins in an organism as a result of ingesting other plants or animals. |
Ecology |
Scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. |
Abiotic |
Nonliving components. (Rainfall, temp, sunlight) |
abiotic |
nonliving components |
Biotic |
living components (humans, plants, fungi.) |
biotic |
living components |
Habitat |
place where an organism normally lives. |
Maximum sustainable yield |
removing as many individuals as possible from a population without impairing its growth. |
Populations carrying capacity |
population size at which growth is zero. |
Growth rate would reach its carrying capacity because: |
-Food supply
-Habitat for living and breathing
-parasite and disease risk
-predation risk" |
Restriction Enzymes |
naturally occuring enzymes are used to cut DNA |
Electrophoresis |
DNA fragments that are sorted by size |
Decomposers |
bacteria eat these dead organisms and teh more dead organisms there are, the greater the bacteria growth. |
Nitrogen & Phosphorus |
Nutrients that are beneficial to plants but can also act as an pollutant. |
Introduced Species |
may not have predators in its new home that can eat it, whic may allow it to grow out of control. |
Biology |
Scientific study of life |
Life |
Characteristics of living things |
Science |
A way of knowing |
Hypothesis |
statement; must be testable and falsifiable. |
What do you do once you have a hypothesis? |
Devise a testable prediction |
Theories |
Broad ideas supported by alot of evidence |
Dependent Variable |
The response variable you are measuring |
Independent Variable |
the predictor variable that is resposible for the variation |
Sample Size |
Number of subjects in experimental groups and in control groups. |
Sample size |
The number of subjects in the control group OR the number of subjects in the experimental group |
Cell Theory |
all living things are composed of cells and arise from previously existing cells |
Prokaryotic Cells |
in bacteria and archaea, smaller, and has no nucleus. |
Eukaryotic Cells |
in all other organisms, larger, more complex, has a nucleus. |
Producers |
make food using light energy from the sun in photosynthesis |
Consumers |
eat other organisms for food. |
Equation for photosynthesis |
sunlight, water, carbon dioxide - oxygen and sugar. |
Equation for Cellular respiration |
oxygen, sugar - carbon dioxide, water, and ATP |
Importance of ATP |
stores energy that can be used for cellular work |
Recommended Calorie intake for inactive women and elderly |
1600 |
calorie intake for active women and inactive men |
2200 |
calorie intake for active men |
2800 |
BMI |
body mass index |
Carbohydrates |
main energy souce made up of simple sugars. |
where are carbohydrates found |
fruits, vegetables, and grains. |
Carbohydrates |
our main energy source |
Saturated fat |
has the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons. |
what shape tail does saturated fat have |
straight |
what shape tail does unsaturated fat have |
kinky |
Unsaturated fat |
has at least one carbon to carbon double bond |
Cholesterol |
the base steroid from which our bodies produce other steroids. |
Functions of Proteins |
1. main structural component of life
2. assist in chemical reactions
3. made up of amino acids " |
Do energy drinks provide energy? |
no. |
DNA |
double helix made up of two strands of sugars, phosphates, and a nitrogen containing base |
DNA |
A type of molecule that provides directions for building proteins |
What are the three parts of a nucleotide? |
1. sugar
2. phosphate
3. nitrogen-containing base |
Mutation |
Any change in the order of bases on a strand of DNA. |
Causes of mutation |
1. harmful conditions
2. certain viruses
3. errors while copying DNA
4. inheritance (only in sex cells)
|
Embryonic stem cells |
from IVF, umbilical chords, cloning |
Adult stem cells |
fewer/ no ethical problems, mainly found in bone marrow. |
Adult stem cells |
fewer/ no ethical problems, mainly found in bone marrow. |
Genome |
a complete set of an organisms DNA |
Genetic engineering |
manipulation of organisms genes |
GMO |
organism that carries recombinant DNA |
Haploid cell |
a cell that has only one of each chromosome |
diploid cell |
cell that has a set of homologous chromosomes |
homologous chromosomes |
two chromosomes that make up a matching pair |
autosomes |
chromosomes that carry all traits not related to gender |
Benign Tumor |
an abnormal mass of cells that stays in place |
malignant tumors |
lumps of cancerous cells |
cancer treatments |
1. surgery
2. radiation therapy
3. chemotherapy |
Mistakes in meiosis |
lead to disorders like down syndrome |
Process of evolution |
a change over many generations in teh relative frequency of alleles that occur in a population |
theory of evolution |
all species are decendents of a single common ancestor |
charles darwin |
provided evidence for evolution |
natural selection |
leads to improvements over time with an increase in favorable traits |
founder effect |
when some individuals leave their main population and form a new small colony elsewhere. |
bottleneck effect |
when a population has had a drastic reduction in size |
gene flow |
when individuals mate with members of a different population |
species |
populations of organisms that are able to interbreed with eachother, but not able to with individuals of other species |
what influences where organisms live? |
abiotic factors |
population carrying capactiy |
population size at which growth is zero |
community |
group of species living close enough together for potential interactions |
niche |
ways an organism uses the environment |
behavioral defenses |
1. hiding or escaping
2. fighting back |
parasitism |
a relationship in which one organism benefits teh other is harmed |
mutualism |
an interaction between two speceis that benefits both partners |
keystone species |
a species whose presence greatly influences which other species are present |
biodiversity |
the variety of life on earth |
causes of biodiversity |
habitat destruction, introduced species, overexpolitation, effects of pollution |
factors that influence biodiversity |
solar energy available, evolutionary history available |
mass extinctions |
large number of species become extinct over a short period of time due to extraordinary and sudden environmental change |
What are the first 3 steps in the process of science? |
Observation,
question,
hypothesis |
Describe scientific hypotheses. |
It must be testable, falsifiable, and a statement (not a question). |
What do you do once you have a prediction? |
Conduct a critical experiment |
2 main scientific approaches to testing predictions: |
Descriptive, & Experimental |
What is the descriptive approach? |
inductive reasoning |
What is the Experimental approach? |
deductive reasoning |
What is inductive reasoning? |
Specific to general |
What is deductive reasoning? |
General to specific |
What happens after you test your prediction? |
Draw conclusions and make revisions |
Can you ever prove a hypothesis to be correct? |
No |
What factors must be present for science to study a phenomenon? |
Ability to be observed, repeatability |
basal metabolic rate |
the amount of energy you expend in a day |
Do genetics influence metabolic rate? |
Yes |
What BMI suggests a person is underweight? |
below 18.5 |
What BMI suggests a person is at a healthy weight? |
18.5 to 25 |
What BMI suggests a person is overweight? |
Above 25 |
What BMI suggests a person is obese? |
above 30 |
What is diabetes? |
the body cannot produce enough or any insulin |
Type II diabetes |
insulin resistance |
What does the plasma membrane do? |
The plasma membrane contains molecules for:
- binding to chemicals outside the cell
- giving each cell a fingerprint
- helping substances pass into/out of cell
- speeding up chemical reactions |
Nucleus |
Contains DNA, a type of molecule that provides directions for building proteins built by ribosomes |
Ribosomes |
Where proteins are built in the cytoplasm, do most of the work in the cell |
Organelles |
Each has a specific function, most are enclosed by membranes, most are found in plant and animal cells |
Only found in plant cells: |
chloroplasts, cell wall (can be found in bacteria), and vacuoles (occasionally found in animal cells) |
_____ make food using light energy from the sun in photosynthesis. |
Producers |
_____ eat other organisms for food. |
Consumers |
Chloroplasts |
Only found in plant cells, the organelles that perform photosynthesis |
Input during photosynthesis: |
Sunlight + water + CO2 |
Output during photosynthesis: |
Oxygen + sugar |
Stomata |
CO2 enters leaves through stomata; tiny pores usually on lower surface of leaves |
True or false: the only producers are plants. |
FALSE |
When plants grow, where does the new tissue come from? |
Air |
Mitochondria |
Where food is converted to cellular energy |
Cellular respiration input: |
oxygen + sugar |
Cellular respiration output: |
CO2 + H20 + energy (ATP) |
Aerobic processes require... |
oxygen |
True or false: creation of ATP is critical for survival. |
TRUE |
Are organisms that do not undergo photosynthesis influenced by it? |
Yes |
ATP is an abbreviation for... |
Adenosine Tri-Phosphate |
What characteristics do all lipids share? |
They are hydrophobic |
Hydrophobic |
fear of water, don’t mix with water |
Examples of lipids |
fats, sterols, phospholipids, & wax |
Functions of fat |
long-term energy storage, cushions vital organs, insulates the skin |
Indigestible Carbohydrates |
Cellulose and chitin (2 polysaccharides) |
Monosaccharides |
simple sugars |
Polysaccharides |
complex carbohydrates |
hydrophilic |
“water loving”. They adhere quickly to water. |
Which Polysaccharides are healthiest to eat? |
fruits, vegetables, whole grains |
3 main categories of polysaccharides |
starch, glycogen, and cellulose |
Starch (definition and examples) |
potatoes, rice, corn, how plants store excess energy |
glycogen |
how animals store excess energy |
cellulose |
main component of the cell wall |
Why do we eat fiber? |
Cannot be digested or absorbed but good for digestive tract |
How do animals break down food? |
They have microorganisms in their stomach that break down the food for them. |
True or false: trans fats are natural |
FALSE |
Is trans fat healthy? |
no |
Why does the food industry see hydrogenation as an advantage? |
It makes the food solid at room temperature |
How are trans fats created? |
Through hydrogenation |
Sterols |
regulate growth and development |
Examples of sterols |
testosterone and estrogen |
Anabolic steroids & their effects |
Synthetic form of testosterone; mimics some of testosterone’s effects, can cause serious physical and mental problems |
Enzymes |
proteins that assist in chemical reactions |
What are some of the functions proteins perform? |
Main structural component of life, protective, regulatory, contractile, transport |
What are proteins made of? |
A bunch of smaller units called amino acids |
How many kinds of common amino acids are there? |
20 common kinds of amino acids |
What determines the shape of a protein? |
Each unique sequence of amino acids leads to a different shape protein |
What happens if excessive amounts of cholesterol accumulate in our blood? |
they can bind together and block arteries |
Essential amino acids |
those that must be acquired through diet |
If something is "cholesterol free", does that mean eating it will not raise your cholesterol? |
No, if you eat fatty foods that have components of cholesterol, your body can synthesize cholesterol itself. |
What is caffeine? |
A stimulant that increased heart rate and blood pressure |
True or false: people may become less sensitive to the effects of caffeine over time |
TRUE |
true or false: stimulant effect is not the same for every person |
TRUE |
biotechnology |
Organisms, cells, and their molecules can be modified to achieve practical benefits |
What is one emphasis of modern biotechnology? |
Genetic engineering |
What is genetic engineering and what can you do with it? |
Manipulation of organisms’ genes.
Can add, delete, or move genes from one species to another. |
Another tool is to amplify the DNA. Describe what happens during the amplify step. Make sure to name the technique that is used. |
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a technique that copies DNA. Use to get lots of copies of DNA from even tiny samples. |
Describe what happens during the insertion tool of the methods used in modern biotechnology. |
"Insert DNA of interest into DNA of bacteria or virus.
- Both easily incorporate foreign DNA and can act as vector to pass DNA to other species." |
How do we use the bacteria or viruses with foreign DNA? |
Can produce lots of bacteria/viruses that will transcribe & translate foreign gene to make protein of interest.
OR
Use bacterial plasmid or virus to insert DNA of interest into another species. |
What is a genetically modified organism? |
An organism that carries recombinant DNA |
What is another name for a genetically modified organism? |
Transgenic organism |
What is the abbreviation for genetically modified organism? |
GM |
What are two ways in which biotechnology is used to improve human health? |
To produce better medicines or to cure diseases (called gene therapy) |
Describe an example of how we have used biotechnology to develop better treatments for diabetes. |
- previously injected insulin from cattle or pigs
- now made by GM bacteria |
What is used to make vaccines? |
DNA technology |
What is a vaccine and how does it work? |
A harmless form of bacteria or virus.
Body makes specific defense that can fight off future harmful forms. |
Describe human gene therapy. |
Seeks to cure disease by inserting a functional gene into an individual’s cells that have a defective version. |
Describe severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). |
- caused by defective genes in immune cells in bloodstream
- patients must avoid infection |
Describe the difficulties associated with the use of gene therapy. |
- Getting the functional gene into the cells where it is needed.
- Getting the functional gene into enough cells.
- Viruses/bacteria infecting unintended cells.
- Can still pass disease to offspring.
|
How is gene therapy used to cure SCID? |
1. Remove immune system cells from patient
2. Infect the cells w/ a virus carrying the normal allele
3. Return cells carrying the normal allele |
What is the advantage of genetically modified agricultural crops? |
It can increase:
- shelf life
- yield (the amt. you produce)
- nutritional value
Also may reduce need for pesticides |
What proportion of crops in the U.S. are genetically modified? |
Corn: 86%
Cotton: 93%
Soybeans: 93% |
Are genetically modified crops controversial? |
Yes |